Baruch Spinoza: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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'''Baruch''' ('''de''') '''Spinoza'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|b|ə|ˈ|r|uː|k|_|s|p|ɪ|ˈ|n|oʊ|z|ə}};<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/spinoza |title=Spinoza |work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=27 April 2019}}</ref> Dutch: {{IPA-nl|baːˈrux spɪˈnoːzaː|}}; Portuguese: {{IPA-pt|ðɨ ʃpiˈnɔzɐ|}}; {{Lang-he|ברוך שפינוזה}}. His boyhood and early adult business name was "Bento", and his synagogue name was "Baruch", the Hebrew translation of "Bento", which means "blessed".{{sfn|Nadler|1999|p=42}} As a correspondent, he primarily signed his name as "Benedictus".{{sfn|Israel|2023|pp=353-54}}}} (24 November 1632{{spaced ndash}}21 February 1677), also known under his Latinized pen name '''Benedictus de Spinoza''', was a Dutch philosopher of [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Portuguese-Jewish]] origin<!--DO NOT CHANGE IT. This introduction on his origin was reached by consensus on the talk page after edit warring led users and sock puppets to be banned!-->. As a forerunner of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], Spinoza significantly influenced modern [[biblical criticism]], 17th-century [[rationalism]], and Dutch intellectual culture, establishing himself as one of the most important and radical philosophers of the [[early modern period]].{{sfn|Nadler|2018|pp=xiii-xiv}} Influenced by [[Stoicism]], [[Maimonides]], [[René Descartes]], and [[heterodoxy|heterodox]] Christian thinkers, Spinoza was a leading philosopher of the [[Dutch Golden Age]].

Spinoza was born in [[Amsterdam]] to a [[Marrano]] family that fledleft [[Portugal]] for the more tolerant [[Dutch Republic]]. He receivedhad a traditional Jewish education, learning [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and studying the sacred texts. withinHe was part of the Portuguese Jewish community, where his father was a prominent merchant. As a young man, Spinoza challenged rabbinic authority and questioned Jewish doctrines, leading to hiswas [[Herem (censure)|permanentpermanently expulsionexpelled]] from the Jewish community infor 1656.defying rabbinic Followingauthorities and disputing Jewish beliefs. After his excommunicationexpulsion in 1656, he distanceddid himselfnot fromaffiliate allwith religiousany affiliationsreligion, andinstead devotedfocusing himself toon philosophical inquirystudy and lens grinding. Spinoza attractedestablished a dedicated circle of followersfollowing who gatheredmet to discuss his writings and joinedwas himdevoted into thepursuing intellectualtruth pursuit of truthphilosophically.

Spinoza challenged the divine origin of the [[Hebrew Bible]], the nature of [[God in Judaism|God]], and the earthly power wielded by religious authorities, Jewish and Christian alike. He was frequently called an atheist by contemporaries, although nowhere in his work does Spinoza argue against the [[existence of God]].{{sfn|Stewart|2006|p=352}}{{sfn|Simkins|2014}} Along with [[Leibniz]] and Descartes, Spinoza is considered to be one of the main representatives of 17th century rationalism; a philosophical position that holds that reason is the chief source of knowledge.<ref>{{cite web |last=Montanarelli |first=Lisa |title=Spinoza stymies 'God's attorney' / Stewart argues the secular world was at stake in Leibniz face off |url=https://www.sfgate.com/books/article/spinoza-stymies-god-s-attorney-stewart-argues-2543764.php |website=SFGate |access-date=20 March 2024}}</ref> His theological studies were inseparable from his thinking on politics; he is grouped with Hobbes, [[John Locke]], [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]], and [[Immanuel Kant]], who established the genre of political writing called [[secular theology]].{{sfn|Smith|1997|p=2}}

Spinoza published little to avoid persecution and bans on his books. In his ''[[Tractatus Theologico-Politicus]]'', described by [[Steven Nadler]] as "one of the most important books of Western thought", Spinoza questioned the divine origin of the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the nature of [[God]] while arguing that ecclesiastic authority should have no role in a secular, democratic state.{{sfn|Nadler|2011|pp=xi-xii}}{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=332}} ''[[Ethics (Spinoza book)|Ethics]]'' argues for a [[pantheistic]] view of God and explores the place of human freedom in a world devoid of theological, cosmological, and political moorings.{{sfn|Stewart|2006|p=308}} Rejecting messianism and the emphasis on the afterlife, Spinoza emphasized appreciating and valuing life for ourselves and others. By advocating for individual liberty in its moral, psychological, and metaphysical dimensions, Spinoza helped establish the genre of political writing called [[secular theology]].{{sfn|Smith|1997|pp=2-3}}

Spinoza's philosophy spansencompasses nearly every area of philosophical discourse, including [[metaphysics]], [[epistemology]], [[Political Philosophy|political philosophy]], [[ethics]], [[Philosophy of Mind|philosophy of mind]], and [[Philosophy of Science|philosophy of science]]. HisWith friendsan posthumouslyenduring published his works, captivating philosophers for the next two centuries. Celebratedreputation as one of the most original and influential thinkers of the seventeenth century, [[Rebecca Goldstein]] dubbed him "the renegade Jew who gave us modernity."{{sfn|Goldstein|2006|p=i}}

{{toclimit|3}}

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====Rijnsburg====

[[File: Spinoza museum Rijnsburg 2.jpg|thumb|Spinoza's lodging in Rijnsburg, now a museum]]

In 1660 or 1661, Spinoza moved from Amsterdam to [[Rijnsburg]], allowing for a quiet retreat in the country and access to the university town, Leiden, where he still had many friends.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=214}} Around this time, he wrote his ''Short Treatise on God, Man, and His Well-Being'', which he never published in his lifetime, thinking it would enrage the theologians, synods, and city magistrates.{{sfn|Israel|2023|p=456}}{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=225}} The ''Short Treatise'', a long-forgotten text that only survived inTwo Dutch translation, was first published by [[Johannestranslations vanwere Vloten]]discovered inaround 18621810.{{sfn|IsraelScruton|20232002|p=33012}} While lodging with Herman Homan in Rijnsburg, Spinoza produced lenses and instruments to support himself and out of scientific interest.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|pp=215-16}} He began working on his ''Ethics'' and ''Descartes' Principles of Philosophy'', which he completed in two weeks, communicating and interpreting Descartes' arguments and testing the water for his metaphysical and ethical ideas. Spinoza's explanations of essential elements of the Cartesian system helped many interested people study the system, enhancing his philosophical reputation. This work was published in 1663 and was one of the two works published in his lifetime under his name.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|pp=243-45}} Spinoza led a modest and frugal lifestyle, earning income by polishing lenses and crafting telescopes and microscopes.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=215}} He also relied on the generous contributions of his friends to support himself.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=305}}

====Voorburg====

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====The Hague====

[[File: Spinoza House, The Hague (2016) 01.png|thumb|Spinoza's house in The Hague, where he died]]

In 1670, Spinoza moved to [[The Hague]] to have easier access to the city's intellectual life and to be closer to his friends and followers.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=334}} As he became more famous, Spinoza spent time receiving visitors and responding to letters. He returned to the manuscript of ''Ethics'', reworking part Three into parts Four and Five, and composed a Hebrew grammar for proper interpretation of scripture and for clearing up confusion and problems when studying the Bible, with part One presenting etymology, the alphabet, and principles governing nouns, verbs, and more. Part Two, unfinished before he died, would have presented syntax rules.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|pp=375-79}} Another unfinished work from 1676 was ''[[Tractatus Politicus]]'', which concerns how states can function well and intended to show that democratic states are best.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=399}} Spinoza refused an offer to be the chair of philosophy at the [[University of Heidelberg]], perhaps because of the possibility that it might curb his [[freedom of thought]].{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=363}}

====Correspondence====

{{See also|Epistolae (Spinoza)|List of Epistolae (Letters) of Spinoza}}

Few of Spinoza's letters are extant and none before 1661. Practically all of them are of philosophical, technical nature, since "the political and ecclesiastical persecution of the time led the original editors of the ''Opera Posthuma'' his friends Lodewijk Meyer, Georg Hermann Schuller, and Johannes Bouwmeester—to delete personal matters and to disregard letters of a personal nature".{{sfn|Shirley|2002|p=755}} Spinoza engaged in correspondence from December 1664 to June 1665 with [[Willem van Blijenbergh]], an amateur [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] theologian, who questioned Spinoza on the definition of [[evil]]. Later in 1665, Spinoza notified Oldenburg that he had started to work on a new book, the ''[[Theologico-Political Treatise]]'', published in 1670. Leibniz disagreed harshly with Spinoza in his manuscript "Refutation of Spinoza",<ref>see [https://archive.org/details/arefutationrece00caregoog/page/n2 <!-- pg=1 quote=leibniz. --> Refutation of Spinoza]</ref> but he is also known to have met with Spinoza on at least one occasion{{sfn|Lucas|1960}}{{sfn|Stewart|2006|pp=12-14}} and his work bears some striking resemblances to some parts of Spinoza's philosophy, like in [[Monadology]]. Leibniz was concerned when his name was not redacted from a letter to Spinoza printed in the ''Opera Posthuma''.{{sfn|Buruma|2024|pp=166-67}} In a letter written in December 1675 and sent to Albert Burgh, who wanted to defend [[Catholicism]], Spinoza clearly explained his view of both Catholicism and [[Islam]]. He stated that both religions are made "to deceive the people and to constrain the minds of men". He also states that Islam far surpasses Catholicism in doing so.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.andrewbostom.org/2012/02/spinoza-on-islam/ | title=Spinoza on Islam| date=13 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Correspondence of Spinoza|first=Baruch|last=Spinoza|translator=A. Wolf|publisher=Kessinger Publishing, LLC|year=2003|page=354}}</ref> The ''Tractatus de Deo, Homine, ejusque Felicitate'' (Treatise on God, man and his happiness) was one of the last of Spinoza's works to be published, between 1851<ref>{{cite book|first=Patrick A.|last=Coyle|url=https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6885&context=etd|title=Some aspects of the philosophy of Spinoza and his ontological proof of the existence of God|publisher= University of Western Ontario, CA|via=University of Windsor, Electronic Theses and Dissertations|year=1938|page=2|format=PDF|oclc=1067012129|access-date=9 June 2021}}</ref> and 1862.{{sfn|Soley|1880}}

Few of Spinoza's letters are extant, and none before 1661.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=xiii}} Nearly all the contents are philosophical and technical because the original editors of ''Opera Posthuma''—a collection of his works published posthumously—Lodewijk Meyer, Georg Hermann Schuller, and Johannes Bouwmeester, excluded personal matters and letters due to the political and ecclesiastical persecution of the time.{{sfn|Shirley|2002|p=755}} Spinoza corresponded with [[Peter Serrarius]], a radical Protestant and [[Millenarianism|millenarian]] merchant, who was a patron of Spinoza after his expulsion from the Jewish community. He acted as an intermediary for Spinoza's correspondence, sending and receiving letters of the philosopher to and from third parties. They maintained their relationship until Serrarius died in 1669.{{sfn|Popkin|1999|p=381}}{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=296}}

[[File:Spinoza Letter to Leibniz.jpg|thumb|left|Letter from Spinoza to Leibniz, with his BdS seal]]

Through his pursuitsinterests in lens grinding, mathematics, optics, and philosophy, Spinoza forged connectionscorresponded with prominentand figures such asbefriended scientist [[Christiaan Huygens]], mathematician [[Johannes Hudde]], and Secretary of the [[British Royal Society]] [[Henry Oldenburg]]. Huygens and others notably praised the quality of Spinoza's lenses.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|pp=259-61}} SpinozaIn engaged in correspondence with [[Willem van Blijenbergh]]1676, an amateur [[Calvinism|Calvinist]] theologian, who sought Spinoza's view on the nature of evil and sin. Whereas Blijenbergh deferred to the authority of scripture for theology and philosophy, Spinoza told him not solely to look at scripture for truth or anthropomorphize God. Also, Spinoza told him their views were incommensurable.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|pp=252-54}} [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] outwardly described Spinoza's work negatively but privately wrote letters to him and desiredwanted to examine thea manuscript copy of the ''Ethics''.{{sfn|Stewart|2006|pp=11-12}} In 1676, Leibnizand traveled to Thethe Hague to meet Spinoza, remainingconversing with him forat threegreat days to converse about current events and philosophylength.{{sfn|Stewart|2006|pp=1412-1514}} Leibniz's work bears some striking resemblances to parts of Spinoza's philosophy,also likecorresponded inwith [[MonadologyPeter Serrarius]]. Leibniz was concerned when his name was not redacted in, a letterradical printedProtestant inand the ''Opera Posthuma''.{{sfn[[Millenarianism|Buruma|2024|pp=166-67}} Inmillenarian]] 1675merchant, Albertwho Burgh,was a friend and possibly former pupilpatron of Spinoza, wrote to him repudiatingafter his teachingsexpulsion and announcing his conversion tofrom the CatholicJewish Churchcommunity. BurghHe attacked Spinoza's viewsacted as expressedan inintermediary thefor Spinoza''Theological-Politicals Treatise'' and tried to persuade Spinoza to embrace Catholicism. In responsecorrespondence, Spinoza,sending atand thereceiving requestletters of Burgh'sthe family, who hopedphilosopher to restoreand hisfrom reason,third wroteparties. anThey angrymaintained lettertheir mockingrelationship theuntil CatholicSerrarius Churchdied andin condemning all religious superstition1669.{{sfn|Popkin|1999|p=381}}{{sfn|Nadler|2018|ppp=390-93296}}

Spinoza published little in his lifetime, and most of his formal writings were in Latin, reaching few readers. ApartThough fromhe ''Descartes'told Principlessupporters ofnot Philosophy''to andtranslate thehis ''Theologico-Politicalworks, Treatise''following his death, his supporters published his works appearedposthumously in printLatin afterand his deathDutch. Because theThe reaction to his anonymously published work, ''Theologico-Political Treatise'', was extremely unfavorable,. Spinoza toldabstained from publishing further, but his writings circulated among his supporters notin manuscript form during his lifetime. He wore a [[signet ring]] to translatemark his worksletters, andengraved abstainedwith fromthe publishingword further''caute'' (Latin for "cautiously") underneath a rose, a symbol of secrecy.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=346}}{{sfn|Stewart|2006|p=106}} FollowingApart hisfrom death,''Descartes' hisPrinciples supportersof publishedPhilosophy'' and the ''Theologico-Political Treatise'', his works posthumouslyappeared in Latinprint andafter Dutch.his death. His posthumousThe works–''Opera Posthuma''–were was edited by his friends in secrecy to prevent the confiscation and destruction of manuscripts.{{sfn|Israel|2023|p=22}} HeThe wore''Ethics'' acontains [[signetmany ring]]still-unresolved toobscurities markand hisis letters, engravedwritten with thea Latinforbidding wordmathematical structure modeled on Euclid''Caute'',s meaning "Caution",geometry and thehas imagebeen ofdescribed as a thorny"superbly rosecryptic masterwork".{{sfn|Stewart|2006|p<ref name=106}}tws9912/>

====Death and rescue of unpublished writings====

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Spinoza's health began to fail in 1676, and he died in The Hague on 21 February 1677 at age 44, attended by a physician friend, Georg Herman Schuller. Spinoza had been ill with some form of lung affliction, probably [[tuberculosis]] and possibly complicated by [[silicosis]] brought on by grinding glass lenses.{{sfn|Gullan-Whur|1998|pp=317-18}} Although Spinoza had been becoming sicker for weeks, his death was sudden, and he died without leaving a will.{{sfn|Israel|2023|pp=1150-1151}}{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=406}} Reports circulated that he repented his philosophical stances on his deathbed, but these tales petered out in the 18th century. Lutheran preacher Johannes Colerus wrote the first biography of Spinoza for the original reason of researching his final days.{{sfn|Israel|2023|p=1155}}

Spinoza was buried inside the [[Nieuwe Kerk (The Hague)|Nieuwe Kerk]] four days after his death, with six others in the same vault. At the time, there was no memorial plaque for Spinoza. In the 18th century, the vault was emptied, and the remnants scattered over the earth of the churchyard. The memorial plaque is outside the church, where some of his remains are part of the churchyard's soil.{{sfn|Israel|2023|p=1158}} Spinoza's friends rescued his personal belongings, papers, and unpublished manuscripts. His supporters took them away for safekeeping from seizure by those wishing to suppress his writings, and they do not appear in the inventory of his possessions at death. Within a year of his death, his supporters translated his Latin manuscripts into Dutch and other languages.{{sfn|Nadler|2018|p=409}} SecularHis works were banned by Dutch authorities and later the Roman Catholic Church banned his works.{{sfn|Israel|1996|p=3}}{{sfn|Totaro|2015|pp=321-22}}

==Philosophy==

{{Jewish philosophy}}

Spinoza's philosophy is explicated in his two major publications originally written in Latin, the ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' (TTP) (1670) and [[Ethics (Spinoza book)|''Ethics'']], published posthumously in Latin and Dutch. His incomplete ''[[Tractatus Politicus]]'' was also published posthumously.

===''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' (TTP)===

[[File:Spinoza Tractatus Theologico-Politicus.jpg|thumb]]

{{Main|Tractatus Theologico-Politicus}}{{See also|Thomas Hobbes}}

Despite being published in Latin rather than a vernacular language, this 1670 treatise published in Spinoza's lifetime caused a huge reaction described as "one of the most significant events in European intellectual history."{{sfn|Nadler|2011|ppp=xi-xii}}{{sfn|Israel|2023|pp=776}}{{sfn|Simkins|2014}}

===''Ethics''===

{{Main|Ethics (Spinoza book)}}

The ''Ethics'' has been associated with that of [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz]] and [[René Descartes]] as part of the [[Rationalism|rationalist]] school of thought,<ref>{{cite web |last=Montanarelli |first=Lisa |title=Spinoza stymies 'God's attorney' / Stewart argues the secular world was at stake in Leibniz face off |url=https://www.sfgate.com/books/article/spinoza-stymies-god-s-attorney-stewart-argues-2543764.php |website=SFGate |access-date=20 March 2024}}</ref> which includes the assumption that ideas correspond to reality perfectly, in the same way that mathematics is supposed to be an exact representation of the world. The ''Ethics'' contains many unresolved obscurities and is written with a forbidding mathematical structure modeled on Euclid's geometry and has been described as a "superbly cryptic masterwork". The writings of [[René Descartes]] have been described as "Spinoza's starting point".<ref name=tws9912>{{cite news

| first=Harold |last=Bloom|author-link=Harold Bloom

| title = Deciphering Spinoza, the Great Original – Book review of ''Betraying Spinoza. The Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity'' by Rebecca Goldstein

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[[File:Portrait of a man, thought to be Baruch de Spinoza, attributed to Barend Graat.jpg|thumb|180px|Probable portrait of Spinoza, by [[Barend Graat]], 1666]]

Spinoza defined [[God]] as "a substance consisting of infinite attributes, each of which expresses eternal and infinite essence", and since "no cause or reason" can prevent such a being from existing, it must exist.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=45}} This is a form of the [[ontological argument]], which is claimed to prove the existence of God, but Spinoza went further in stating that it showed that only God exists.<ref name=Scruton38>{{harvnb|Scruton|2002|page=38}}</ref> Accordingly, he stated that "Whatever is, is in God, and nothing can exist or be conceived without God".<ref name=Scruton38 /><ref>{{sfncite journal |Lin url=https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1933-1592.2007.00076.x | doi=10.1111/j.1933-1592.2007.00076.x |p title=273Spinoza's Arguments for the Existence of God | date=2007 | last1=Lin | first1=Martin | journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research | volume=75 | issue=2 | pages=269–297 }}</ref> This means that God is identical with the universe, an idea which he encapsulated in the phrase "''Deus sive Natura''" ('God or Nature'), which somehas havebeen interpreted by some as [[atheism]] or [[pantheism]].{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=51}} Though there are many more of them, God can be known by humans either through the attribute of extension or the attribute of thought.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=57}} Thought and extension represent giving complete accounts of the world in mental or physical terms.{{sfn|Scruton|2002|page=59}} To this end, he says that "the mind and the body are one and the same thing, which is conceived now under the attribute of thought, now under the attribute of extension".{{sfn|Scruton|2002|p=60}}

After stating his proof for God's existence, Spinoza addresses who "God" is. Spinoza believed that God is "the sum of the natural and physical laws of the universe and certainly not an individual entity or creator".<ref>Cannon, J. A. (2009, May 17). World in time of upheaval: Sources of enlightenment. Deseret News.</ref> Spinoza attempts to prove that God is just the substance of the universe by first stating that substances do not share attributes or essences and then demonstrating that God is a "substance" with an infinite number of attributes, thus the attributes possessed by any other substances must also be possessed by God. Therefore, God is just the sum of all the substances of the universe. God is the only substance in the universe, and everything is a part of God. This view was described by [[Charles Hartshorne]] as [[Classical Pantheism]].<ref name="auto4">Charles Hartshorne and William Reese, "Philosophers Speak of God", Humanity Books, 1953 ch. 4</ref>

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===Memory and memorials===

[[File:Spinoza_Nicolas_Dings_Zwanenburgwal_Amsterdam.JPG|thumb|Statue (2008) of Spinoza by Nicolas Dings, inAmsterdam, [[Zwanenburgwal]], Amsterdam with the inscription "The objective of the state is freedom" (translation, quote from ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'', 1677)]]

* Spinoza Lyceum, a high school in Amsterdam South was named after Spinoza. There is also a 3 metre tall marble statue of him on the grounds of the school carved by [[Hildo Krop]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mo 50 – Statue Spinoza – Amsterdam |url=https://www.timswings.nl/hildokrop/tag/spinoza/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122055240/https://www.timswings.nl/hildokrop/tag/spinoza/ |archive-date=Jan 22, 2022 |access-date=June 20, 2023 |language=Dutch}}</ref>

* The Spinoza Havurah (a [[Humanistic Judaism|Humanistic Jewish]] community) was named in Spinoza's honor.<ref>[http://www.spinozahavurah.org ''SpinozaHavurah.org''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230101055509/https://spinozahavurah.wordpress.com/ |date=1 January 2023 }} (Accessed Nov. 202, 2022)</ref>

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==Depictions and influence in literature==

Spinoza's life and work have been the subject of interest for several writers. For example, this influence was considerably early in German literature, where [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] makes a glowing mention of the philosopher in his memoirs, highlighting the positive influence of the ''Ethics'' in his personal life.<ref>Johan W. von Goethe. ''[https://archive.org/details/theworksofjohann02goet/page/n14/mode/1up Autobiography]'', vol. 2. Transl. by John Oxenford. The Anthological Society. London-Chicago, 1901, Chapters 14-16, p.178-248 </ref> The same thing happened in the case of his compatriot, the poet [[Heinrich Heine|Heine]], who is also lavish in praise for Spinoza on his ''[[Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland|On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany]]'' (1834).<ref>Heinrich Heine. ''[https://books.google.com.mx/books/about/History_of_Religion_and_Philosophy_in_Ge.html?id=EX4PAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany]''. Edited by Paul L. Rose. James Cook University of North Queensland, 1982, p. 56-57 </ref>▼

▲Spinoza's life and work have been the subject of interest for several writers. For example, this influence was considerably early in German literature, where [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] makes a glowing mention of the philosopher in his memoirs, highlighting thea positive influence ofby the ''Ethics'' in his personal life.<ref>Johan W. von Goethe. ''[https://archive.org/details/theworksofjohann02goet/page/n14/mode/1up Autobiography]'', vol. 2. Transl. by John Oxenford. The Anthological Society. London-Chicago, 1901, Chapters 14-16, p.178-248 </ref> The same thing happened in the case of his compatriot, the poet [[Heinrich Heine|Heine]], who is also lavish in praise for Spinoza on his ''[[Zur Geschichte der Religion und Philosophie in Deutschland|On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany]]'' (1834).<ref>Heinrich Heine. ''[https://books.google.com.mx/books/about/History_of_Religion_and_Philosophy_in_Ge.html?id=EX4PAQAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y On the History of Religion and Philosophy in Germany]''. Edited by Paul L. Rose. James Cook University of North Queensland, 1982, p. 56-57 </ref>

In the following century, the Argentinian [[Jorge Luis Borges]] famously wrote two sonnets in his honor ("Spinoza" in ''El otro, el mismo'', 1964; and "Baruch Spinoza" in ''La moneda de hierro'', 1976), and several direct references to Spinoza's philosophy can be found in this writer's work.<ref> Marcelo Abadi: [https://www.borges.pitt.edu/bsol/abadi.php "Spinoza in Borges' looking-glass"].  Borges Studies Online. J. L. Borges Center for Studies & Documentation. Internet: 14/04/01 </ref> Also in Argentina and previously to Borges, the Ukrainian-born Jewish intellectual [[Alberto Gerchunoff]] wrote a novella about philosopher's early sentimental life, ''Los amores de Baruj [sic] Spinoza'' (lit. "The loves of Baruj Spinoza", 1932), recreating a supposed affair or romantic interest with Clara Maria van den Enden, daughter of his Latin teacher and philosophical preceptor, [[Franciscus van den Enden|Franciscus]].<ref>Diego Sztulwark: [https://www.elcohetealaluna.com/spinoza-y-la-cultura-judia-argentina/ "Spinoza y la cultura judía argentina"] (in Spanish). ''El Cohete a la Luna'', 2/6/2022 </ref>▼

▲In the following century, the Argentinian [[Jorge Luis Borges]] famously wrote two sonnets in his honor ("Spinoza" in ''El otro, el mismo'', 1964; and "Baruch Spinoza" in ''La moneda de hierro'', 1976), and several direct references to Spinoza's philosophy can be found in this writer's work.<ref> Marcelo Abadi: [https://www.borges.pitt.edu/bsol/abadi.php "Spinoza in Borges' looking-glass"].  Borges Studies Online. J. L. Borges Center for Studies & Documentation. Internet: 14/04/01 </ref> Also in Argentina and previously to Borges, the Ukrainian-born Jewish intellectual [[Alberto Gerchunoff]] wrote a novella about philosopher's early sentimental life, ''Los amores de Baruj [sic] Spinoza'' (lit. "The loves of Baruj Spinoza", 1932), recreating a supposed affair or romantic interest with Clara Maria van den Enden, daughter of his Latinlatin teacher and philosophical preceptor, [[Franciscus van den Enden|Franciscus]].<ref>Diego Sztulwark: [https://www.elcohetealaluna.com/spinoza-y-la-cultura-judia-argentina/ "Spinoza y la cultura judía argentina"] (in Spanish). ''El Cohete a la Luna'', 2/6/2022 </ref>

That is not the only work of fiction where the philosopher appears as the main character. In 1837 the German writer [[Berthold Auerbach]] dedicated to him the first novel in his series on Jewish history, translated into English in 1882 (''Spinoza: a Novel'').<ref>See [https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/Spinoza:_A_novel complete text] on Wikisource. </ref> Some other novels of biographical nature have appeared more recently, such as ''The Spinoza Problem'' (2012; a parallel story between the philosopher's formative years, and the fascination that his work had on the Nazi leader [[Alfred Rosenberg]]) by psychiatrist [[Irvin D. Yalom]], or ''O Segredo de Espinosa'' (lit. "The Secret of Spinoza", 2023) by Portuguese journalist [[José Rodrigues dos Santos]]. Spinoza also appears in the first novel of the Argentinian activist [[Andres Spokoiny]], ''El impío'' (lit. "The Impious", 2021), about the ''[[marrano]]'' physician and philosopher [[w:es:Juan de Prado|Juan de Prado]], a key influence in Spinoza's biography. <ref>[https://www.enlacejudio.com/2022/05/27/el-impio-de-andres-spokoiny/ El Impío de Andrés Spokoiny] (In Spanish). 05/27/2022. </ref>

Not directly his person, but his influence or legacy are themes present both in "The Spinoza of Market Street", a short story by the Polish-born Jewish-American Nobel Prize winner [[Isaac Bashevis Singer]] (originally written in [[yiddish]] in 1961), and also in the recent novel by Mexican Ezra Béjar ''Un Baruch para Spinoza'' (lit. "A Baruch for Spinoza", 2023).<ref> [https://www.elnorte.com/baruch-spinoza-un-pensador-que-cimbro-su-tiempo/ar2453108 Baruch Spinoza, un pensador que cimbró su tiempo] (in Spanish). 8/14/2022 </ref>

In another sense, Spinoza's philosophy is an important part of the series of satirical punk post-apocalyptic fiction novels by the French writer Jean-Bernard Pouy, begun with ''[[w:fr: Spinoza encule Hegel|Spinoza encule Hegel]]'' (lit. "Spinoza fucks [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]", 1983), where the protagonist take the nickname of "Spinoza" or "Spino" and projects a violent application of his thinking in a lawless world. The series continued with two more novels, subsequently issued in 1998 and 2006.

Finally, the British art critic [[John Berger]] published some prose poems and drawings under the title of ''Bento's Sketchbook'' (2011), inspired by the Philosopher's work (from which he takes literal quotes), and in the anecdote about the existence of a drawing notebook among his belongings that disappeared after his death.

==Works==

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* {{cite book|last=Jaspers|first=Karl|author-link=Karl Jaspers|title=Spinoza|series=Great Philosophers|publisher=Harvest Books|date=23 October 1974|isbn=978-0-15-684730-8}}

* {{cite book |last=Kreines |first=James |title=Reason in the World: Hegel's Metaphysics and Its Philosophical Appeal |year=2015 |url=https://archive.org/details/james-kreines-reason-in-the-world-hegels-metaphysics-and-its-philosophical-appeal |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-020430-3}}

* {{cite book|last=Lucas|first=P. G.|year=1960|chapter=Some Speculative and Critical Philosophers|editor=I. Levine|title=Philosophy|location=London|publisher=Odhams}}

* {{cite book |chapter=Spinoza's Cartesian Dualism in the Korte Verhandeling |last=Garber |first=Daniel |pages=121–132 |title=The Young Spinoza: A Metaphysician in the Making| editor-last=Melamed |editor-first=Yitzhak Y.|editor-link=Yitzhak Melamed |year=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-997166-4 |oclc=900634238 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199971657.003.0008}}

* {{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Rebecca |author-link=Rebecca Newberger Goldstein |title=Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew who Gave Us Modernity |year=2006 |publisher=[[Schocken Books]] |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/betrayingspinoza00gold_0 |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-8052-4209-6 |oclc=61859859}}

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:'''Articles and online'''

{{refbegin|32em}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Lin |first=Martin |date=September 2007 |doi=10.1111/j.1933-1592.2007.00076.x |title=Spinoza's Arguments for the Existence of God |journal=[[Philosophy and Phenomenological Research]] |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=269–297 |issn=0031-8205}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Nadler |first=Steven |date=2001b |title=The Excommunication of Spinoza: Trouble and Toleration in the "Dutch Jerusalem" |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42943396 |journal=Shofar |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=40–52 |jstor=42943396 |issn=0882-8539}}

* {{cite journal |title=On the Development of Spinoza's Account of Human Religion |last=Simkins |first=James |journal=Intermountain West Journal of Religious Studies |dateyear=Spring 2014 |volume=5 |number=1 |pages=52–72 |issn=2155-1723 |url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1036&context=imwjournal}}

* {{cite journal |first=W.R. |last=Soley |author-link=W. R. Sorley |doi=10.1093/mind/os-V.19.362 |title=Jewish Mediaeval Philosophy in Spinoza|journal=Mind |volume=os-V |issue=19 |date=1 July 1880 |pages=362–384 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|quote= other hand, the discovery and publication in 1862 of a lost treatise of Spinoza's—the Tractatus brtvia de Deo et homine ejusque felicitate |jstor=2246395 |oclc=5545819846 |issn=0026-4423}}

* {{cite journal |journal=[[The Westminster Review]] |title=The Religious Difficulties of India |volume=78 |edition=American |location=New York|publisher=Leonard Scott & Co. |year=1862 |pages=245–263 |hdl=2027/mdp.39015013165819?urlappend=%3Bseq=264 |hdl-access=free |ref={{harvid|The Westminster Review|1862}}}}

{{refend}}