Coccinellidae: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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== Description ==

Coccinellids range in size from {{Convert|0.8|to(-)|18|mm|in|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Seago">{{cite journal |last1=Seago |first1=Ainsley E. |last2=Giorgi |first2=Jose Adriano |last3=Li |first3=Jiahui |last4=Ślipiński |first4=Adam |title=Phylogeny, classification and evolution of ladybird beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) based on simultaneous analysis of molecular and morphological data |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |date=July 2011 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=137–151 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2011.03.015 |pmid=21426943|bibcode=2011MolPE..60..137S }}</ref> They are [[sexual dimorphism|sexually dimorphic]]; adult females tend to be slightly larger than males.{{sfn|Hodek|Honěk|Van Emden|2012|p=78}} They are generally oval with domed backs and flattened undersides.<ref name=Majerus/> They have large [[compound eyes]] and clubbed [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]] with seven to eleven segments. The powerful [[Mandible (insect mouthpart)|mandible]]s (equivalent to jaws) typically have pairs of "teeth" which face each other.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|p=16}} The coccinellid [[prothorax]] (front of thorax) is broad and convex, and can cover the back of the head.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|p=17}}{{sfn|Hodek|Honěk|1996|p=20}} Being beetles, they have hardened, non-overlapping [[forewing]]s, known as [[elytron|elytra]], which cover up the more fragile [[hindwing]]s when the insects are not in flight. Their [[arthropod leg|legs]] are relatively short,{{sfn|Majerus|2016|p=17}} with a [[tarsal formula]] of 4-4-4 or 3-3-3.{{sfn|Hodek|Honěk|Van Emden|2012|p=3}} The [[Arthropod_leg#Tarsus|tarsus]] (end of leg) has two claws at the tip.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|p=17}}

As adults, these beetles differ from their closest relatives with the following [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] characteristics:{{sfn|Hodek|Honěk|Van Emden|2012|p=3}}

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=== Fossil history ===

Over 6,000 living species of Coccinellidae have been described.<ref name="Seago"/> They are sparsely preserved in the fossil record.<ref name="Szawaryn Tomaszewska 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Szawaryn |first1=Karol |last2=Tomaszewska |first2=Wioletta |title=The first fossil Sticholotidini ladybird beetle (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) reveals a transition zone through northern Europe during the Eocene |journal=[[Papers in Palaeontology]] |volume=6 |issue=4 |date=10 June 2020 |doi=10.1002/spp2.1321 |pages=651–659 |bibcode=2020PPal....6..651S |s2cid=225734543}}</ref> Although [[molecular clock]] estimates have placed their origin in the [[Cretaceous]], the oldest fossils of the group are known from the [[Oise amber]] of France, dating to the Early [[Eocene]] ([[Ypresian]]) around 53 million years ago, which belong to the extant genera ''[[Rhyzobius]]''  and ''[[Nephus]]''.<ref name="Kirejtshuk Nel 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Kirejtshuk |first1=A. G. |last2=Nel |first2=A. |year=2012 |title=The oldest representatives of the family Coccinellidae (Coleoptera: Polyphaga) from the lowermost Eocene Oise amber (France) |journal=[[Zoosystematica Rossica]] |volume=21 |issue=21 |pages=131–144 |doi=10.31610/zsr/2012.21.1.131}}</ref> The greatest number of fossils comes from the younger Eocene [[Baltic amber]], including members of the extant genera ''[[Serangium (beetle)|Serangium]]''<ref name="Szawaryn Szwedo 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Szawaryn |first1=Karol |last2=Szwedo |first2=Jacek |title=Have ladybird beetles and whiteflies co-existed for at least 40 Mya? |journal=[[PalZ]] |volume=92 |issue=4 |date=21 May 2018 |doi=10.1007/s12542-018-0409-5 |pages=593–603 |bibcode=2018PalZ...92..593S |s2cid=90619916}}</ref> and ''Rhyzobius'' as well as extinct genera belonging to the tribes [[Microweiseini]] (''Baltosidis'')<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Szawaryn |first=Karol |date=29 November 2021 |title=The first fossil Microweiseini (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) from the Eocene of Europe and its significance for the reconstruction of the evolution of ladybird beetles |journal=[[Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society]] |volume=193 |issue=4 |doi=10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa180 |pages=1294–1309|doi-access=free }}</ref> and [[Sticholotidini]] (''Electrolotis'').<ref name="Szawaryn Tomaszewska 2020"/>

=== Phylogeny ===

The Coccinellidae are within the superfamily [[Coccinelloidea]], which in turn is part of the infraorder [[Cucujiformia]], a group containing most of the plant-eating beetles. The ladybirds form the majority of the species in the Coccinelloidea; many of the rest are fungus-feeding beetles or [[scavenger|scavengers]].<ref name="Robertson 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Robertson |first1=James A. |last2=Ślipiński |first2=Adam |last3=Moulton |first3=Matthew |last4=Shockley |first4=Floyd W. |last5=Giorgi |first5=Adriano |last6=Lord |first6=Nathan P. |last7=McKenna |first7=Duane D. |last8=Tomaszewska |first8=Wioletta |last9=Forrester |first9=Juanita |last10=Miller |first10=Kelly B. |last11=Whiting |first11=Michael F. |last12=McHugh |first12=Joseph V. |display-authors=3 |title=Phylogeny and classification of Cucujoidea and the recognition of a new superfamily Coccinelloidea (Coleoptera: Cucujiformia) |year=2015 |journal=[[Systematic Entomology]] |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=745–778 |doi=10.1111/syen.12138 |bibcode=2015SysEn..40..745R |s2cid=55206626}}</ref>

{{clade

|label1=[[Cucujiformia]]

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Coccinellidae have historically been divided into up seven subfamilies ([[Chilocorinae]], [[Coccidulinae]], [[Coccinellinae]], [[Epilachninae]], [[Microweiseinae]], [[Scymninae]] and [[Sticholotidinae]]) and 35 tribes based on morphology. However, genetics studies have called into question the [[monophyly]] (single ancestry) of most of these subfamilies. The monophyly of Coccinellinae has the most support.<ref name=Giorgi2009/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Magro |first1=A |last2=Lecompte |first2=E |last3=Magné |first3=F |last4=Hemptinne |first4=J. L. |last5=Crouau-Roy |first5=B |year=2010 |title=Phylogeny of ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae): Are the subfamilies monophyletic? |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=833–848 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2009.10.022 |pmid=19903531|bibcode=2010MolPE..54..833M }}</ref>

A 2021 genetic study sampling many species, identified three subfamilies, Microweiseinae (with three tribes), Coccinellinae (26 tribes) and a newly identified group, the [[Monocoryninae]] (one tribe). All three subfamilies were strongly supported, but the study noted that although the tribes are mostly monophyletic, their relationships are only weakly supported. The study suggests that the [[crown group]] appeared some 143 [[Myr|Mya]] in the [[Early Cretaceous]], and that the group diversified rapidly during the Late Cretaceous, perhaps because the growth in diversity of [[angiosperm]] plants then encouraged the radiation of insects of the clade [[Sternorrhyncha]] such as [[aphid]]s, on which ladybirds could feed.<ref name=Che2021>{{cite journal |last=Che |first=LiHeng |display-authors=etal |title=New insights into the phylogeny and evolution of lady beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) by extensive sampling of genes and species |journal=[[Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution]] |issue=156 |year=2021 |volume=156 |page=107045 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2020.107045 |pmid=33352317 |bibcode=2021MolPE.15607045C |s2cid=229693745}}</ref>

{{clade

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An earlier 2009 study concluded that consumption of [[scale insects]] is the most [[Basal (phylogenetics)|basal]] diet of Coccinellidae. Aphid-eating evolved three separate times and leaf-eating evolved twice, one of which evolved from a clade that contains both aphid-eating and [[pollen]]-eating. The fungi-eating also evolved from aphid-eating.<ref name=Giorgi2009>{{cite journal |last1=Giorgi |first1=J. A. |display-authors=etal |year=2009 |title=The evolution of food preferences in Coccinellidae |journal=Biological Control |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=215–231 |doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.05.019 |bibcode=2009BiolC..51..215G |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/systentomologyusda/8}}</ref>

== Biology and ecology==

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=== Trophic roles ===

Coccinellids act both as predators, prey and [[parasitic]] [[host (biology)|hosts]] in [[food webs]].<ref name=trophic>{{cite journal |last1=Weber |first1=D. C. |last2=Lundgren |first2=J. G. |year=2009 |title=Assessing the trophic ecology of the Coccinellidae: Their roles as predators and as prey |journal=Biological Control |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=199–214 |doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.05.013|bibcode=2009BiolC..51..199W }}</ref> The majority of coccinellids are [[carnivorous]] and [[predatory]], typically preying on Sternorrhyncha insects like aphids, scale insects, [[whiteflies]], [[psyllid]]s and [[Adelgidae|adelgid]]s. Some species feed on the larvae of [[moth]]s and other beetles, as well as [[mite]]s. Since much of their prey are agricultural pests, coccinellids are considered to be [[beneficial insect]]s.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|p=86}}{{sfn|Hodek|Honěk|Van Emden|2012|p=490}}<ref name=prey/> A 2009 [[metastudy]] by Hodek and Honěk found that aphid-eaters constituted around 68 percent of species that live in temperate areas but only 20 percent of species worldwide. Around 36 percent of total species mostly feed on scale insects.<ref name=prey>{{cite journal |last1=Hodek |first1=I |last2=Honěk |first2=A |year=2009 |title=Scale insects, mealybugs, whiteflies and psyllids (Hemiptera, Sternorrhyncha) as prey of ladybirds |journal=Biological Control |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=232–243 |doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.05.018|bibcode=2009BiolC..51..232H }}</ref> Larvae and adults eat the same foods, unlike in other insect groups.<ref name=Majerus/>

Ladybird species vary in dietary [[Generalist and specialist species|specificity]]. An example of a specialist species is those of the genus ''[[Stethorus]]'', which feed on [[spider mite]]s. Aphid-eaters tend to be generalist; they have a high voracity and can multiply quickly in response to outbreaks, and switch to other prey when the [[Ephemerality|ephemeral]] aphids become scarce. Predators of scale insects tend to be less voracious and are slower breeders and developers; matching their prey.{{sfn|Hodek|Honěk|Van Emden|2012|pp=489–493}} Under pressure from coccinellid predation, aphid species have evolved to become more toxic, forcing coccinellids to develop immunities.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|pp=99–100}} Coccinellid predators of aphids need to defend themselves against ants that tend and defend aphids for their honeydew,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dejean |first=A. |date=2002 |title=Specialized predation on plataspid heteropterans in a coccinellid beetle: adaptive behavior and responses of prey attended or not by ants |journal=Behavioral Ecology |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=154–159 |doi=10.1093/beheco/13.2.154|doi-access=free }}</ref> and coccinellid eggs laid near aphids are disposed of.<ref name=trophic/> Some species including ''[[Coccinella magnifica]]'' and ''[[Diomus]]'' have adapted to grow within ant nests as larvae, and some like ''[[Diomus thoracicus]]'' are predators of the brood of the ant ''[[Electric ant|Wasmannia auropunctata]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sloggett |first1=John J. |last2=Majerus |first2=Michael E. N. |date=2000 |title=Aphid-mediated coexistence of ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) and the wood ant Formica rufa : seasonal effects, interspecific variability and the evolution of a coccinellid myrmecophile. |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.890216.x |journal=Oikos |language=en |volume=89 |issue=2 |pages=345–359 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.890216.x|bibcode=2000Oikos..89..345S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vantaux |first1=Amélie |last2=Roux |first2=Olivier |last3=Magro |first3=Alexandra |last4=Orivel |first4=Jérôme |date=2012 |title=Evolutionary Perspectives on Myrmecophily in Ladybirds |journal=Psyche: A Journal of Entomology |language=en |volume=2012 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1155/2012/591570 |issn=0033-2615 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Cannibalism]] has been recorded in several species; which includes larvae eating eggs or other larvae, and adults feeding on individuals of any life stage.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|pp=107–115}} Some coccinellids are mostly non-predatory, such as some species in the genera ''[[Epilachna]]'' and ''[[Henosepilachna]]''.<ref name=AusJE_Li>{{cite journal |last=Li |first=C. S. |title=Review of the Australian Epilachninae (Coleoptera: Coccinelledae) |journal=[[Austral Entomology|Australian Journal of Entomology]] |date=1 August 1993 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=209–224 |doi=10.1111/j.1440-6055.1993.tb00577.x |s2cid=84783346}}</ref>{{sfn|Majerus|2016|p=119}} The majority of predatory species may also supplement their diet with other sources of food both in their larval and adult stages.<ref name="ACGG">{{cite journal |last1=Almeida |first1=Lúcia M. |last2=Corrêa |first2=Geovan H. |last3=Giorgi |first3=José A. |last4=Grossi |first4=Paschoal C. |title=New record of predatory ladybird beetle (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae) feeding on extrafloral nectaries |journal=Revista Brasileira de Entomologia |date=September 2011 |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=447–450 |doi=10.1590/S0085-56262011005000028 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Non-animal matter consumed include leaves, pollen, [[nectar]], [[sap]], fungi, and [[Honeydew (secretion)|honeydew]].{{sfn|Majerus|2016|p=86}}<ref name="ACGG"/><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lundgren |first=Jonathan G. |date=2009 |title=Nutritional aspects of non-prey foods in the life histories of predaceous Coccinellidae |url=https://pubag.nal.usda.gov/download/36578/pdf |journal=Biological Control |language=en |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=294–305 |doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.05.016|bibcode=2009BiolC..51..294L }}</ref> Members of the tribe Halyziini of the subfamily Coccinellinae are obligate fungus feeders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sutherland |first1=Andrew M. |last2=Parrella |first2=Michael P. |date=2009 |title=Mycophagy in Coccinellidae: Review and synthesis |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1049964409001443 |journal=Biological Control |language=en |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=284–293 |doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.05.012|bibcode=2009BiolC..51..284S }}</ref>

Coccinellids of any lifestage are preyed on by predators such as birds, spiders, ants and [[lacewing]]s.<ref name=Aslam/> They are also hosts for parasites, including some [[flies]], [[tick]]s, mites, [[hymenopteran]]s and [[nematode]]s, and pathogens, including bacteria, fungi and [[protozoa]].<ref name=trophic/>{{sfn|Hodek|Honěk|1996|pp=323–350}} ''[[Wolbachia]]'' bacteria infects eggs and kills male zygotes.{{sfn|Hodek|Honěk|1996|pp=349–350}} The promiscuity of Coccinellids has led to their being affected by [[sexually transmitted infection]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ryder|first1=J. J.|display-authors=etal|year=2012|title=Spatial variation in food supply, mating behavior, and sexually transmitted disease epidemics|journal=Behavioral Ecology|volume=24|issue=3|pages=723–729|doi=10.1093/beheco/ars209|doi-access=free}}</ref>

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=== Defense ===

[[File:Coccinella septempunctata Reflexbluten (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|''Coccinella septempunctata'' reflex bleeding]]

The bright warning colouration of many coccinellids [[Anti-predator adaptation|discourage potential predators]], warning of their [[toxicity]]. A 2015 study of five ladybird species found that their colouration [[Signalling theory|honestly signalled]] their toxicity, implying the warning is genuine. Species with more contrast with the background environment tended to be more toxic.<ref name="Arenas Walter Stevens 2015">{{cite journal |last1=María Arenas |first1=Lina |last2=Walter |first2=Dominic |last3=Stevens |first3=Martin |title=Signal honesty and predation risk among a closely related group of aposematic species |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=5 |issue=1 |date=5 June 2015 |page=11021 |doi=10.1038/srep11021 |pmid=26046332 |pmc=4457162 |bibcode=2015NatSR...511021M |s2cid=12356230}}</ref> Coccinellid [[hemolymph|haemolymph]] (blood) contains toxic [[alkaloid]]s, azamacrolides and [[polyamine]]s, as well as foul-smelling [[pyrazine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Glisan King |first1=Angela |last2=Meinwald |first2=Jerrold |date=1996 |title=Review of the Defensive Chemistry of Coccinellids |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/cr950242v |journal=Chemical Reviews |language=en |volume=96 |issue=3 |pages=1105–1122 |doi=10.1021/cr950242v |pmid=11848782 |issn=0009-2665}}</ref> Coccinellids can produce at least 50 types of alkaloids. When disturbed, ladybirds further defend themselves with [[reflex bleeding]], exuding drops from their tibio-femoral (knee) joints, effectively presenting predators with a sample of their toxic and bitter body fluid.<ref name=Aslam>{{cite journal |last=Aslam |first=Muhammad |year=2020 |title=Conspicuousness and toxicity of Coccinellidae: An aposematic review |journal=Arthropods |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=85–91 |url=http://www.iaees.org/publications/journals/arthropods/articles/2020-9(3)/conspicuousness-and-toxicity-of-Coccinellidae.pdf |access-date=31 October 2022 |issn=2224-4255}}</ref> Predator-deterring poisons are particularly important for the immobile pupa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schroeder |first1=F. C. |last2=Smedley |first2=S. R. |last3=Gibbons |first3=L. K. |last4=Farmer |first4=J. J. |last5=Attygalle |first5=A. B. |last6=Eisner |first6=T |last7=Attygalle |first7=J |year=1998 |title=Polyazamacrolides from ladybird beetles: ring-size selective oligomerization |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=95 |issue=23 |pages=13387–13391 |doi=10.1073/pnas.95.23.13387 |pmid=9811809 |pmc=24828 |bibcode=1998PNAS...9513387S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Access to food can affect the concentration of both pigments and toxins.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blount |first1=J. D. |display-authors=etal |year=2012 |title=How the ladybird got its spots: effects of resource limitation on the honesty of aposematic signals |journal=Functional Ecology |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=334–342 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2435.2012.01961.x |bibcode=2012FuEco..26..334B |hdl=10536/DRO/DU:30047055|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

The similarity of coccinellid patterning in red and orange with black markings has led to suggestions that they and some species of chrysomelids<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balsbaugh |first=Edward U. |chapter=Mimicry and the Chrysomelidae |date=1988 |chapter-url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-009-3105-3_16 |title=Biology of Chrysomelidae |series=Series Entomologica |pages=261–284 |editor-last=Jolivet |editor-first=P. |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-3105-3_16 |isbn=978-94-010-7896-2 |editor2-last=Petitpierre |editor2-first=E. |editor3-last=Hsiao |editor3-first=T. H.}}</ref> form [[Müllerian mimicry|Müllerian mimicry rings]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brakefield |first=Paul M. |date=1985 |title=Polymorphic Müllerian mimicry and interactions with thermal melanism in ladybirds and a soldier beetle: a hypothesis |url=https://academic.oup.com/biolinnean/article-lookup/doi/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1985.tb01635.x |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |language=en |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=243–267 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.1985.tb01635.x}}</ref> particularly to defend them from birds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dolenská |first1=Michaela |last2=Nedvěd |first2=OldřIch |last3=Veselý |first3=Petr |last4=Tesařová |first4=Monika |last5=Fuchs |first5=Roman |date=2009 |title=What constitutes optical warning signals of ladybirds (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) towards bird predators: colour, pattern or general look? |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |language=en |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=234–242 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2009.01277.x|doi-access=free }}</ref> Despite their chemical defenses, coccinellids are preyed on by some [[Cleridae|clerid]] beetles in the genus ''[[Enoclerus]]'', several species of which are brightly coloured in red and black, and which possibly sequester the toxins of the prey to defend themselves against other predators.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rifkind |first=Jacques |date=2016 |title=Enoclerus Gahan: predators of chemically protected ladybird beetles (Coleoptera: Cleridae and Coccinellidae). |url=https://journals.flvc.org/mundi/article/view/0514 |journal=Insecta Mundi |language=en |issue=0514 |pages=1–5 |issn=1942-1354}}</ref>

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Coccinellidae are found on every continent except Antarctica.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|p=49}} Asian and African species are less studied than others.<ref name=conservation/> Coccinellids can be found in a variety of habitats, both on the ground and in the trees. They may specialise using certain plants. Some species can live in extreme environments such as high mountains, arid deserts and cold regions.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|p=71}} Several of the most famous species have wide ranges, but others are more [[endemic]] and possibly threatened.<ref name=conservation/>

Threats to coccinellids include [[climate change]], agriculture, urbanisation, and [[invasive species]]. Coccinellid biodiversity will likely be affected by the rising of both average temperatures and heat fluctuations. Climate change may lead to smaller larvae, as well as increase energy and metabolic needs and interspecific predation. Agriculture and urbanisation threatens these insects though [[habitat destruction]] and homogenisation and the use of [[pesticides]]. Invasive threats include other coccinellids, particularly ''C. septempunctata'' in North America and ''[[Harmonia axyridis|H. axyridis]]'' globally.<ref name=conservation/> These invaders outcompete the native species as well as eat their eggs.<ref name=conservation/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cottrell |first1=T |year=2005 |title=Predation and cannibalism of lady beetle eggs by adult lady beetles |journal=Biological Control |volume=34 |issue=2 |pages=159–164 |doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2005.04.008|bibcode=2005BiolC..34..159C }}</ref>

As of 2022, the [[IUCN Red List]] does not list the conservation status for any coccinellid, though there is an IUCN SSC Ladybird Specialist Group. Conservationists have suggested several measures for protecting the insects, including [[citizen science]] and education programs, habitat preservation and restoration, prevention of the spread of invasive species and a global monitoring program.<ref name=conservation>{{cite journal |last1=Soares |first1=A. O. |last2=Haelewaters |first2=D |display-authors=etal |year=2022 |title=A roadmap for ladybird conservation and recovery |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=37 |issue=1 |page=e13965 |doi=10.1111/cobi.13965 |pmid=35686511 |s2cid=249544157|hdl=1854/LU-01H03C9PDA695QF4CYS2M54G5E |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

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[[File:Larvas Rodolia cardinalis.JPG|thumb|Biological control: larval ''[[Novius cardinalis]]'' feeding on ''[[Icerya purchasi]]''|alt=Ladybird used as a biological control in horticulture]]

Coccinellids have been valued in [[biological pest control]], as they prey on agricultural pests such as aphids and scale insects. Their importance in controlling pests was noted as far back as 1814 in England.<ref name=Majerus/> Their efficiency can vary: sometimes they have a relatively small effect on aphid populations; at others they cause significant seasonal declines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Obrycki |first1=J. J. |last2=Harwood |first2=J. D. |last3=Kring |first3=T. J. |last4=O'Neil |first4=R. J. |year=2009 |title=Aphidophagy by Coccinellidae: Application of biological control in agroecosystems |journal=Biological Control |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=244–254 |doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2009.05.009|bibcode=2009BiolC..51..244O }}</ref>

Several species have been [[introduced species|introduced]] to areas outside their native range; the first being the vedalia beetle, ''[[Novius cardinalis]]''.<ref name=Majerus/> The larva of the species was introduced to California in 1887 from Australia, to protect [[citrus]] trees from [[cottony cushion scale]]. The project was markedly successful, costing $1,500 in 1889,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Caltagirone |first1=L E |last2=Doutt |first2=R L |date=1989 |title=The History of the Vedalia Beetle Importation to California and its Impact on the Development of Biological Control |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.en.34.010189.000245 |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1146/annurev.en.34.010189.000245 |issn=0066-4170}}</ref> making it "a textbook example of the great potential of classical biological control as a tactic for suppressing invasive pests." The beetle was then used in 29 countries, again with success; reasons for this include its high prey specificity, fast development, multiple generations each year, efficient discovery of host patches, and larval development completed on a single host insect.{{sfn|Hodek|Honěk|Van Emden|2012|p=491}}

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===In culture===

Coccinellids have had important roles in culture and religion, being associated with luck, love, fertility and prophecy. "Ladybird" is an affectionate term for someone, such as a loved one. In [[European folklore]], an insect acts as a matchmaker, crawling on a woman and then flying to their true love. Coccinellids have been said to predict the future, particularly weather conditions and how well the crops will grow.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|pp=5–7}}<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Barševska, Z. |author2=Barševskis, A. |year=2016 |title=A ladybird (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) motif in croched towel end lace: the first example of cultural entomology in Latvia. |journal=Acta Biol. Univ. Daugavp. |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=151–154 |url=https://du.lv/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/4_Barsevska.pdf}}</ref> Contrary to a popular saying, the age of a lady bug cannot be determined by counting its spots.<ref>[https://www.reconnectwithnature.org/news-events/the-buzz/myth-buster-can-you-tell-a-ladybug-s-age-by-its-spots/ Myth buster: Can you tell a ladybug's age by its spots? In a word, no]</ref>

In Christianity, coccinellids have been seen as the literal gatekeepers of Heaven. A Swedish name for the insects, ''Himmelska nycla'', means "Keys of Heaven". Jews have referred to the insects as the "Cow of [[Moses]] our Teacher". The [[Cherokee]] have revered them as the "Great Beloved Woman"; this was used as a title for the highest-ranking woman in the government, who would be painted in the colours and patterns of the insect during ceremonies.{{sfn|Majerus|2016|pp=3–4}}