Meiji era: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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| image = Meiji tenno3.jpg

| alt =

| caption = [[Emperor Meiji]] (1872)

| before = [[Keiō]]

| including = {{plainlist|*[[Meiji Constitution]]

*[[Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874)]]

*[[Meiji Constitution]]

*[[Ganghwa Island incident|Japanese invasion of Korea]]

*[[First Sino-Japanese War]]

*[[Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1895)]]

*[[Eight-Nation Alliance]]▼

*[[Boxer Rebellion]]

▲**[[Eight-Nation Alliance]]

*[[Russo-Japanese War]]

}}▼

| after = [[Taishō era|Taishō]]

| monarch = [[Emperor Meiji|Meiji]]

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periods}}

The {{Nihongo|'''PoopyfaceMeiji era'''|明治時代|Meiji jidai|{{IPA-|ja|meꜜː(d)ʑi||TomJ-Meiji.ogg}}}} was an [[Japanese era name|era]] of [[History of Japan|Japanese history]] that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912.<ref>Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005). "''Meiji''" in {{Google books|p2QnPijAEmEC|''Japan encyclopedia,'' p. 624|page=624}}; n.b., Louis-Frédéric is pseudonym of Louis-Frédéric Nussbaum, ''see'' [https://archive.today/20120524174828/http://dispatch.opac.ddb.de/DB=4.1/PPN?PPN=128842709 Deutsche Nationalbibliothek Authority File].</ref> The Meiji era was the first half of the [[Empire of Japan]], when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated [[feudalism|feudal society]] at risk of colonization by [[Western world|Western]] powers to the new paradigm of a modern, industrialized [[nation state]] and emergent [[great power]], influenced by [[Western world|Western]] scientific, technological, philosophical, political, legal, and aesthetic ideas. As a result of such wholesale adoption of radically different ideas, the changes to Japan were profound, and affected its social structure, internal politics, economy, military, and foreign relations. The period corresponded to the reign of [[Emperor Meiji]]. It was preceded by the [[Keiō era]] and was succeeded by the [[Taishō era]], upon the accession of [[Emperor Taishō]].

The rapid modernization during the Meiji era was not without its opponents, as the rapid changes to society caused many disaffected traditionalists from the former [[samurai]] class to rebel against the Meiji government during the 1870s, most famously [[Saigō Takamori]] who led the [[Satsuma Rebellion]]. However, there were also former samurai who remained loyal while serving in the Meiji government, such as [[Itō Hirobumi]] and [[Itagaki Taisuke]].

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[[File:Meiji tenno1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Emperor Meiji]] {{circa|1888}}]]

In as muchInasmuch as the Meiji Restoration had sought to return the Emperor to a preeminent position, efforts were made to establish a [[Shinto]]-oriented state much like it was 1,000 years earlier. Since Shinto and Buddhism [[Shinbutsu-shūgō|had molded into a syncretic belief]] in the prior one-thousand years and Buddhism had been closely connected with the shogunate, this involved the separation of Shinto and Buddhism ([[shinbutsu bunri]]) and the associated destruction of various Buddhist temples and related violence ([[haibutsu kishaku]]). Furthermore, a new [[State Shinto]] had to be constructed for the purpose. In 1871, the [[Office of Shinto Worship]] ([[:ja:神祇省]]) was established, ranking even above the Council of State in importance. The ''[[kokutai]]'' ideas of the Mito school were embraced, and the divine ancestry of the [[Imperial Household of Japan|Imperial House]] was emphasized. The government supported Shinto teachers, a small but important move. Although the Office of Shinto Worship was demoted in 1872, by 1877 the [[Home Ministry (Japan)|Home Ministry]] controlled all Shinto shrines and certain Shinto sects were given state recognition. Shinto was released from Buddhist administration and its properties restored. Although Buddhism suffered from state sponsorship of Shinto, it had its own resurgence. Christianity also was legalized, and Confucianism remained an important ethical doctrine. Increasingly, however, Japanese thinkers identified with Western ideology and methods.

== Politics ==

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Dissatisfied with the pace of reform after having rejoined the Council of State in 1875, Itagaki organized his followers and other democratic proponents into the nationwide [[Aikokusha]] (Society of Patriots) to push for representative government in 1878. In 1881, in an action for which he is best known, Itagaki helped found the [[Liberal Party of Japan (1881)|Jiyūtō]] (Liberal Party), which favored French political doctrines.

[[File:Japanese Parliament in session.jpg|thumb|left|Interior of [[House of Peers (Japan)|House of Peers]], showing Minister speaking at the tribune from which members address the House]]

In 1882, [[Ōkuma Shigenobu]] established the [[Rikken Kaishintō]] (Constitutional Progressive Party), which called for a British-style constitutional democracy. In response, government bureaucrats, local government officials, and other conservatives established the [[Rikken Teiseitō]] (Imperial Rule Party), a pro-government party, in 1882. Numerous political demonstrations followed, some of them violent, resulting in further government restrictions. The restrictions hindered the political parties and led to divisions within and among them. The Jiyūtō, which had opposed the Kaishinto, was disbanded in 1884 and Ōkuma resigned as Kaishintō president.

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=== Fashion ===

[[File:Khalili Collection of Kimono K100.jpg|thumb|left|Outer kimono for a woman (uchikake) with hanging scroll motifs, 1880–1890]]{{Main|Japanese clothing during the Meiji period}}

The production of [[kimono]] started to use Western technologies such as [[Dye|synthetic dye]], and decoration was sometimes influenced by Western motifs.{{sfn|Iwao|2015|p=11}} The textile industry modernized rapidly and silk from Tokyo's factories became Japan's principal export.{{sfn|Jackson|2015|p=117}} Cheap synthetic dyes meant that bold purples and reds, previously restricted to the wealthy elite, could be owned by anyone.{{sfn|Jackson|2015|p=118}} Faster and cheaper manufacture allowed more people to afford silk kimono, and enabled designers to create new patterns.{{sfn|Jackson|2015|p=118}} [[Emperor Meiji|The Emperor]] issued a proclamation promoting Western dress over the allegedly effeminate Japanese dress.{{sfn|Jackson|2015|p=112}} [[Fukuzawa Yukichi]]'s descriptions of Western clothing and customs were influential.{{sfn|Jackson|2015|p=113}} Western dress became popular in the public sphere: many men adopted Western dress in the workplace, although kimono were still the norm for men at home and for women.{{sfn|Guth|2015|p=110}} In the 1890s the kimono reasserted itself, with people wearing bolder and brighter styles. A new type called the {{lang|ja-Latn|[[hōmongi]]}} bridged the gap between formal dress and everyday dress.{{sfn|Jackson|2015|p=117}}

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The [[Industrial Revolution]] in Japan occurred during the Meiji era. The industrial revolution began around 1870 as Meiji era leaders decided to catch up with the West. The government built railroads, improved roads, and inaugurated a land reform program to prepare the country for further development. It inaugurated a new Western-based education system for all young people, sent thousands of students to the United States and Europe, and hired more than 3,000 Westerners to teach modern science, mathematics, technology, and foreign languages in Japan (O-yatoi gaikokujin).

In 1871, a group of Japanese politicians known as the [[Iwakura Mission]] toured Europe and the US to learn western ways. The result was a deliberate state-led industrialization policy to enable Japan to quickly catch up. The [[Bank of Japan]], founded in 1877, used taxes to fund model steel and textile factories.

Modern industry first appeared in textiles, including cotton and especially silk, which was based in home workshops in rural areas.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Allen|first=George Cyril|title=A short economic history of modern Japan, 1867-1937|date=1972|publisher=Allen and Unwin|isbn=0-04-330201-7|edition=3rd rev.|location=London|oclc=533080}}</ref> Due to the importing of new textile manufacturing technology from Europe, between 1886 and 1897, Japan's total value of yarn output rose from 12 million to 176 million yen. In 1886, 62% of yarn in Japan was imported; by 1902, most yarn was produced locally. By 1913, Japan was producing 672 million pounds of yarn per year, becoming the world's fourth-largest exporter of cotton yarn.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Wealth and Poverty of Nations: Why Some Are So Rich and Some So Poor|last=Landes|first=David S.|publisher=Norton|year=1999|location=New York|pages=379–80}}</ref>

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In 1872, Yamagata Aritomo and [[Saigō Jūdō]], both new field marshals, founded the Corps of the Imperial Guards. Also, in the same year, the hyobusho (war office) was replaced with a War Department and a Naval Department. The samurai class suffered great disappointment the following years, when in January the Conscription Law of 1873 was passed. This monumental law, signifying the beginning of the end for the samurai class, initially met resistance from both the peasant and warrior alike. The peasant class interpreted the term for military service, ketsu-eki (blood tax) literally, and attempted to avoid service by any means necessary. Avoidance methods included maiming, self-mutilation, and local uprisings.{{sfn|Kublin|1949|p=32}}

[[File:Navy Minister Saigo Judo (Tsugumichi) CdV 1880s.png|thumb|upright=0.7|left|Marquis [[Saigo Tsugumichi]] commanded Japanese expeditionary forces as a lieutenant-general in the Taiwan Expedition.]]

In conjunction with the new conscription law, the Japanese government began modeling their ground forces after the French military. Indeed, the new Japanese army used the same rank structure as the French.{{sfn|Kublin|1949|p=31}} The enlisted corps ranks were: private, noncommissioned officers, and officers. The private classes were: jōtō-hei or upper soldier, ittō-sotsu or first-class soldier, and nitō-sotsu or second-class soldier. The noncommissioned officer class ranks were: gochō or corporal, gunsō or sergeant, sōchō or sergeant major, and tokumu-sōchō or special sergeant major.

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Despite the Conscription Law of 1873, and all the reforms and progress, the new Japanese army was still untested. That all changed in 1877, when [[Saigō Takamori]] led the last rebellion of the samurai in Kyūshū. In February 1877, Saigō left Kagoshima with a small contingent of soldiers on a journey to Tokyo. Kumamoto castle was the site of the first major engagement when garrisoned forces fired on Saigō's army as they attempted to force their way into the castle. Rather than leave an enemy behind him, Saigō laid siege to the castle. Two days later, Saigō's rebels, while attempting to block a mountain pass, encountered advanced elements of the national army en route to reinforce Kumamoto castle. After a short battle, both sides withdrew to reconstitute their forces. A few weeks later the national army engaged Saigō's rebels in a frontal assault at what now is called the Battle of Tabaruzuka. During this eight-day-battle, Saigō's nearly ten thousand strong army battled hand-to-hand the equally matched national army. Both sides suffered nearly four thousand casualties during this engagement. Due to conscription, however, the Japanese army was able to reconstitute its forces, while Saigō's was not. Later, forces loyal to the emperor broke through rebel lines and managed to end the siege on [[Kumamoto Castle]] after fifty-four days. Saigō's troops fled north and were pursued by the national army. The national army caught up with Saigō at Mt. [[Enodake]]. Saigō's army was outnumbered seven-to-one, prompting a mass surrender of many samurai. The remaining five hundred samurai loyal to Saigō escaped, travelling south to Kagoshima. The rebellion ended on September 24, 1877, following the final engagement with Imperial forces which resulted in the deaths of the remaining forty samurai including Saigō, who, having suffered a fatal bullet wound in the abdomen, was honorably beheaded by his retainer. The national army's victory validated the current course of the modernization of the Japanese army as well as ended the era of the samurai.

[[File:1895_Meiji_28_Japanese_Map_of_Imperial_Japan_with_Taiwan_-_Geographicus_-_ImperialJapan-meiji28-1895.jpg|thumb|left|A map of the Japanese Empire dating to 1895. This map was issued shortly after the [[Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1895)|1895 Japanese invasion of Taiwan]] and is consequently one of the first Japanese maps to include Taiwan and as a possession of Imperial Japan.]]

== Foreign relations ==

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=== Textiles ===

[[File:Khalili Collections A Composite Imaginary View of Japan.jpg|thumb|left|150px|A composite imaginary view of Japan: textile artwork]]

The 1902 edition of ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' wrote, "In no branch of applied art does the decorative genius of Japan show more attractive results than that of textile fabrics, and in none has there been more conspicuous progress during recent years. [...] Kawashima of Kyoto [...] inaugurated the departure a few years ago by copying a [[Gobelins Manufactory|Gobelin]], but it may safely be asserted that no Gobelin will bear comparison with the pieces now produced in Japan".<ref name="eb1902">"Japan" in [[:File:1902_Encyclopædia_Britannica_-_Volume_29_-_GLA-JUT.pdf|''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (1902), Volume 29]], pages 724–725.</ref> Very large, colorful pictorial works were being produced in Kyoto. Embroidery had become an art form in its own right, adopting a range of pictorial techniques such as [[chiaroscuro]] and [[aerial perspective]].<ref name="eb1902" />

{{Clear}}

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==Conversion tabletables==

To convert any [[Gregorian calendar]] year between 1868 and 1912 to [[Japanese calendar]] year in Meiji era, 1867 needs to be subtracted from the year in question.▼

===Before 1873===

Prior to Japan adopting the [[Gregorian calendar]], it used the [[Lunisolar calendar|lunisolar]] Japanese calendar. The first five years of the era correspond to the following date ranges in the Gregorian calendar:

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Conversion table for the first five years of the Meiji era to the Gregorian calendar

! Meiji year !! Gregorian date range

|-

| 1 || October 23, 1868 – February 10, 1869

|-

| 2 || February 11, 1869 – January 31, 1870

|-

| 3 || February 1, 1870 – February 18, 1871

|-

| 4 || February 19, 1871 – February 8, 1872

|-

| 5 || February 9 – December 31, 1872

▲}|}

Conversely, the conversion table of Gregorian calendar years 1868 to 1872 to the traditional Japanese lunisolar calendar is shown below:

{| class="wikitable"

|+ Conversion table of Gregorian calendar years 1868 to 1872 to the Japanese lunisolar calendar

! Gregorian year !! Japanese calendar range

|-

| 1868 || [[Keiō]] 3/12/7 – Meiji 1/11/18

|-

| 1869 || Meiji 1/11/19 – 2/11/29

|-

| 1870 || Meiji 2/11/30 – 3/11/10

|-

| 1871 || Meiji 3/11/11 – 4/11/20

|-

| 1872 || Meiji 4/11/21 – 5/12/2

|}

===Since 1873===

▲On January 1, 1873, Japan adopted the Gregorian calendar. To convert any [[Gregorian calendar]] year between 18681873 and 1912 to [[Japanese calendar]] year in Meiji era, 1867 needs to be subtracted from the year in question.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"

|-

!Meiji|| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9 || 10 || 11 || 12 || 13 || 14 || 15 || 16 || 17 || 18

|-

|AD|| 1868 || 1869 || 1870 || 1871 || 1872 || 1873 || 1874 || 1875 || 1876 || 1877 || 1878 || 1879 || 1880 || 1881 || 1882 || 1883 || 1884 || 1885

|-

!Meiji|| 17 || 18 || 19 || 20 || 21 || 22 || 23 || 24 || 25 || 26 || 27 || 28 || 29 || 30 || 31 || 32

|-

|AD|| 1884 || 1885 || 1886 || 1887 || 1888 || 1889 || 1890 || 1891 || 1892 || 1893 || 1894 || 1895 || 1896 || 1897 || 1898 || 1899

|-

!Meiji|| 33 || 34 || 35 || 36 || 37 || 38 || 39 || 40 || 41 || 42 || 43 || 44 || 45