Presidency of Jimmy Carter: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{Jimmy Carter series}}

[[Jimmy Carter]]'s tenure as the [[List of presidents of the United States|39th]] [[president of the United States]] began with [[Inauguration of Jimmy Carter|his inauguration]] on January 20, 1977, and ended on January 20, 1981. A Carter, a [[History of the Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] from [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], Carter took office afterfollowing defeatinghis incumbentnarrow [[Historyvictory of theover [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Presidentincumbent president [[Presidency of Gerald Ford|Gerald Ford]] in the [[1976 United States presidential election|1976]] presidential election]]. His presidency ended following his landslide defeat in the [[1980 United States presidential election|1980]] presidential election]] to Republican [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan|Ronald Reagan]], after one term in office. AgedAt age {{age nts|1924|10|1}}, he is the oldest living, longest-lived and [[List of long marriages|longest-married]] president, and has the longest post-presidency. He is also the [[List of oldest living state leaders|fourth-oldest living former state leader]].

Carter took office during a period of "[[stagflation]],", as the economy experienced a combination of high [[inflation]] and slow economic growth. His budgetary policies centered on taming inflation by reducing deficits and government spending. Responding to energy concerns that had persisted through much of the 1970s, his administration enacted a national energy policy designed for long-term energy conservation and the development of alternative resources. In the short term the country was beset by an [[1979 energy crisis|energy crisis]] in 1979 which was overlapped by a [[Early 1980s recession in the United States|recession]] in 1980. Carter sought reforms to the country's welfare, health care, and tax systems, but was largely unsuccessful, partly due to poor relations with Democrats in [[96th United States Congress|Congress]].

Carter reoriented U.S. foreign policy towards an emphasis on [[human rights]]. He continued the conciliatory late [[Cold War]] policies of his predecessors, normalizing relations with [[China–United States relations|China]] and pursuing further [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] with the [[Soviet Union–United States relations|Soviet Union]]. In an effort to end the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]], he helped arrange the [[Camp David Accords]] between [[Israel–United States relations|Israel]] and [[Egypt–United States relations|Egypt]]. Through the [[Torrijos–Carter Treaties]], Carter guaranteed the eventual transfer of the [[Panama Canal]] to Panama. Denouncing the [[Soviet–Afghan War|Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] in 1979, he reversed his conciliatory policies towards the Soviet Union and began a period of military build-up and diplomatic pressure such as pulling out of the [[1980 Summer Olympics|Moscow Olympics]].

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{{Main|Jimmy Carter 1976 presidential campaign|1976 United States presidential election}}

{{Further|1976 United States elections|1976 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1976 Democratic National Convention}}

[[File:ElectoralCollege1976.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|The 1976 electoralElectoral collegeCollege vote results]]

Carter was elected as the [[Governor of Georgia]] in 1970, and during his four years in office he earned a reputation as a [[Progressivism in the United States|progressive]], racially moderate [[Southern United States|Southern]] governor. Observing [[George McGovern]]'s success in the [[1972 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1972 Democratic primaries]], Carter came to believe that he could win the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination by running as an outsider unconnected to establishment politicians in Washington.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, pp. 9–12</ref> Carter declared his candidacy for the 1976 Democratic presidential nomination in December 1974 and swore "to never lie to the American people."<ref>Zelizer, p. 29</ref> As Democratic leaders such as 1968 nominee [[Hubert Humphrey]], Senator [[Walter Mondale]] of Minnesota, and Senator [[Ted Kennedy]] of Massachusetts declined to enter the race, there was no clear favorite in the [[1976 Democratic Party presidential primaries|Democratic primaries]]. [[Mo Udall]], [[Sargent Shriver]], [[Birch Bayh]], [[Fred R. Harris]], [[Terry Sanford]], [[Henry M. Jackson]], [[Lloyd Bentsen]], and [[George Wallace]] all sought the nomination, and many of these candidates were better known than Carter.<ref>Zelizer, pp. 31–32</ref>

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==Inauguration==

{{main|Inauguration of Jimmy Carter}}

[[File:President Jimmy Carter and Rosalynn Carter walk down Pennsylvania Avenue during Inauguration. - NARA - 173376.tif|thumb|upright=1.0|President Jimmy Carter and [[Rosalynn Carter]] walk down [[Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.)|Pennsylvania Avenue]] during Inaugurationthe inauguration.]]

In his inaugural address, Carter said, "We have learned that more is not necessarily better, that even our great nation has its recognized limits, and that we can neither answer all questions nor solve all problems."<ref name = "Dyer-2004">{{cite book |title=The American Presidency |editor=Alan Brinkley and Davis Dyer |year=2004 |publisher=Mariner Books |isbn=978-0-618-38273-6}}</ref> Carter had campaigned on a promise to eliminate the trappings of the "[[Imperial Presidency]]," and began taking action according to that promise on Inauguration Day, breaking with recent history and security protocols by walking from the Capitol to the White House in his inaugural parade. His first steps in the White House went further in this direction: Carter cut the size of the 500-member White House staff by one-third and reduced the perks for the president and cabinet members.<ref>{{cite book|author=Shirley Anne Warshaw|title=Guide to the White House Staff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2dN1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222|year=2013|publisher=SAGE |page=222|isbn=9781452234328}}</ref> He also fulfilled a campaign promise by issuing a "full complete and unconditional pardon" (amnesty) for Vietnam War-era [[draft dodgers|draft evaders]].<ref>David Shichor and Donald R. Ranish. "President Carter's Vietnam amnesty: An analysis of a public policy decision." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' (1980) 10#3: 443–450. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/27547599 online]</ref>

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*{{cite web |last1=Carter |first1=Jimmy |title=Crisis of Confidence |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/carter-crisis/ |website=[[American Experience]] |publisher=[[PBS.org]] |access-date=23 February 2023 |language=en}}

*{{cite web |last1=Carter |first1=Jimmy |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/primary-resources/carter-crisis/ |title= Crisis of Confidence |work= [[American Experience]] |publisher=[[WGBH-TV]], [[PBS.org]] }}

*{{cite web |title=How Carter's "Crisis of Confidence" Speech Still Matters |url=https://origins.osu.edu/history-news/how-carter-s-crisis-confidence-speech-still-matters |website=Origins |date=July 7, 2009 |publisher=[[osu.edu]] |access-date=23 February 2023 |language=en}}

*{{cite web |last1=Carter |first1=Jimmy |title=Address to the Nation on Energy and National Goals: "The Malaise Speech" |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=32596 |website=The American Presidency Project |publisher=[[University of California, Santa Barbara]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170404201506/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=32596 |archive-date=4 April 2017 |date=July 15, 1979 |quote=Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley}}

</ref> came to be known as his "malaise" speech, although Carter never used the word in the speech.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://millercenter.org/scripps/archive/speeches/detail/3402 |title= "Crisis of Confidence" Speech (July 15, 1979) |publisher= Miller Center, University of Virginia |format= text and video |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090721024329/http://millercenter.org/scripps/archive/speeches/detail/3402 |archive-date= July 21, 2009 |df= mdy-all }}</ref><ref>Alter, ''His Very Best: Jimmy Carter, a Life'' (2020) pp 456–475.</ref>

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Carter presided over the deregulation of several industries, which proponents hoped would help revive the sluggish economy. The [[Airline Deregulation Act]] (1978) abolished the [[Civil Aeronautics Board]] over six years, provided for the free entry of airlines into new routes, and opened air fares up to competition.<ref name="Ingui">Mary Jane Capozzoli Ingui, ''American History, 1877 to the Present'', 2nd edn. (Hauppauge, NY: Barron's Educational Series, 2003), 192–3.</ref> Carter also signed the [[Motor Carrier Act of 1980|Motor Carrier Act]] (1980), which gradually withdrew the government from controlling access, rates, and routes in the trucking industry; the [[Staggers Rail Act]] (1980), which loosened railroad regulations by allowing railroad executives to negotiate mergers with barge and truck lines;<ref>Patterson, p. 115</ref> and the [[Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act]] (1980), which removed ceilings on interest rates and permitted [[Savings bank|savings]] and [[commercial bank]]s to write home [[Mortgage loan|mortgage]]s, extend [[business loan]]s, and underwrite [[Security (finance)|securities]] issues.<ref name="Ingui" />

The Housing and Community Development Act of 1977 set up Urban Development Action Grants, extended handicapped and elderly provisions, and established the [[Community Reinvestment Act]],<ref name="google2">{{cite book|title=A Decent Place to Live: From Columbia Point to Harbor Point – a Community History|author=Roessner, J.|date=2000|publisher=Northeastern University Press|isbn=9781555534363|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IU4GRtCNbHMC&pg=PA91|page=91|access-date=March 13, 2017}}</ref> which sought to prevent banks from denying credit and loans to poor communities.<ref name="google3">{{cite book|title=The War on Poverty: A New Grassroots History, 1964–1980|author1=Orleck, A.|author2=Hazirjian, L.G.|date=2011|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=9780820331010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9EqJhMYc3SsC&pg=PA444|page=444|access-date=March 13, 2017}}</ref> The Child Nutrition Amendments of 1978 introduced a national income standard for program eligibility based on income standards prescribed for reduced-price school lunches. The Act also strengthened the nutrition education component of the WIC program by requiring the provision of nutritional education to all program participants.<ref>http{{Cite book |last1=Oliveira |first1=Victor |url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/ersDownloadHandler.ashx?file=webdocs/mediapublications/32791446648/fanrr27c_1_15834_fanrr27c_1_.pdf {{Bare|title=The WIC Program: Background, Trends, and Issues. Chapter II: History of the WIC URLProgram |last2=Racine |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Olmsted |first3=Jennifer |last4=Ghelfi |first4=Linda M. PDF|date=AugustSeptember 20222002 |publisher=Economic Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture |series=Food Assistance and Nutrition Research Report No. 27 |pages=8}}</ref> Urban development Action grants supplied nearly $5 million for some 3,300 projects in declining cities,<ref>Government and Politics of the United States Second Edition by Nigel Bowles, 1998, P.344</ref> and a Fair Debt Collection Practices Act was passed with the aim of prohibiting "abusive and unfair techniques of debt collection."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=7030 |title=Archived copy |access-date=December 19, 2013 |archive-date=December 20, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220043743/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=7030 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 was passed with the intention of enabling the coal industry to develop coal resources without damaging other natural resources in the process,<ref>Paradise Regained? Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 By D. Michael Harvey, P.1151</ref> while the Federal Mine Safety and Health Act of 1977 was aimed at safeguarding mineworkers from harm in the workplace.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dol.gov/opa/aboutdol/lawsprog.htm |title=U.S. Department of Labor – A Summary of Major DOL Laws |access-date=December 22, 2013 |archive-date=February 9, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130209174025/http://www.dol.gov/opa/aboutdol/lawsprog.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) programs and women's programs were also strengthened, and "common sense priorities" led to focus on major health problems.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/marshall.htm |title=U.S. Department of Labor – History – Portraits: Ray Marshall |access-date=December 22, 2013 |archive-date=September 10, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910222129/http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/marshall.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Pregnancy Discrimination Act, passed in 1978, prohibited companies or organizations from discriminating against pregnant employees while providing protection in the areas of childbirth and medical conditions related to pregnancy or childbirth.<ref>Discrimination Law Issues for the Safety Professional By Thomas D. Schneid, P.195</ref> The National Consumer Cooperative Bank Act of 1978 sought to put funds aside for low-interest loans to start cooperatives.<ref>Debt for Sale: A Social History of the Credit Trap By Brett Williams, P.24</ref> Minimum wage coverage was extended to farmworkers, and the Age Discrimination in Employment Act Amendments of 1978 increased the upper age limit on coverage against age discrimination in non-federal employment and in the private sector from 65 to 70 as a means of extending safeguards against age discrimination.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/carter-esa.htm |title=U.S. Department of Labor – History – Employment Standards Administration (ESA) |access-date=December 22, 2013 |archive-date=December 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224095612/http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/history/carter-esa.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> In addition, the purchase requirement for food stamps was abolished<ref>Social welfare in today's world by William H. Whitaker and Ronald C. Federico, P.175</ref> and the first-ever national youth employment law was enacted.<ref>Beyond the Liberal Consensus: A Political History of the United States Since 1965 By Iwan W. Morgan, P.162</ref>

In 1979 Carter opened the first White House Conference on Library and Information Services stating that "libraries must be strengthened and the public made more aware of their potential: Libraries can be community resources for the consumer and small business on matters such as energy and marketing and technological innovation."<ref>“White House Conference on Library and Information Services.” ''Journal of Reading'' 24, no. 8 (1981): 719–21.</ref> The White House Conference on Library and Information Services was a project of the [[National Commission on Libraries and Information Science]].

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==Foreign affairs==

{{Main|Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration}}

[[File:US President Jimmy Carter Presidential Trips.PNG|thumb|upright=1.4|[[List of international presidential trips made by Jimmy Carter|Carter made 12 international trips]] to 25 different countries during his presidency.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/carter-jimmy|title= Travels of President Jimmy Carter|publisher= U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian|access-date= 2023-12-15|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230425134933/https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/carter-jimmy|archive-date= 2023-04-25|url-status= live}}</ref>]]▼

[[File:Cold War Map 1980.png|thumb|upright=1.84|A map of the geopolitical situation in 1980]]▼

Although foreign policy was not his highest priority at first, a series of worsening crises made it increasingly the focus of attention regarding the Soviet Union, Afghanistan, Iran, and the global energy crisis.<ref>John Dumbrell, ''American foreign policy: Carter to Clinton'' (Macmillan International Higher Education, 1996).</ref> His handling of the Iranian Revolution and hostage crisis made him very unpopular at home and lowered his historical stature as measured by historians.<ref>Lee Sigelman, and Pamela Johnston Conover, "The dynamics of presidential support during international conflict situations: The Iranian hostage crisis." ''Political behavior'' 3.4 (1981): 303–318.</ref>

===Cold War===

Carter took office during the [[Cold War]], a sustained period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]]. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, relations between the two [[superpower]]s had improved through a policy known as [[detente]]. In a reflection of the waning importance of the Cold War, some of Carter's contemporaries labeled him as the first post-Cold War president, but relations with the Soviet Union would continue to be an important factor in American foreign policy in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Many of the leading officials in the Carter administration, including Carter himself, were members of the Trilateral Commission, which de-emphasized the Cold War. The Trilateral Commission instead advocated a foreign policy focused on aid to [[Third World]] countries and improved relations with Western Europe and Japan. The central tension of the Carter administration's foreign policy was reflected in the division between Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, who sought improved relations with the Soviet Union and the Third World, and National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski, who favored confrontation with the Soviet Union on a range of issues.<ref>Herring, pp. 830–833</ref> After the disappointment of the [[Vietnam warWar]] a re-focus of the [[US Army]] on the [[Warsaw Pact]] problem found that technology and teamwork both were in dire need to be upgraded. Guided by General [[Donn A. Starry]] and the concept that was to become [[AirLand Battle]], Carter and his administration approved the initial outlays for the [[A-10]], [[AH-64]], [[HIMARS]], [[Bradley IFV]], [[M109 Paladin]], [[Patriot missile]], [[M1 Abrams]],<ref name="suprin22">{{cite news |last1=Suprin |first1=John |title=Yom Kippur War & The Development of U.S. Military Doctrine |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IQ_tihjHB3s |agency=YouTube |publisher=The Dole Institute of Politics |date=25 October 2012}}</ref> and the [[Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk]].<ref name="csisrw">{{cite news |last1=Wagner |first1=Rich |last2=Tegnelia |first2=Jim |title=Technology-Strategy Seminar: NATO's AirLand Battle Strategy and Future Extended Deterrence |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSukv1CcORk |publisher=Center for Strategic & International Studies Center for Strategic & International Studies}}</ref>▼

▲[[File:Cold War Map 1980.png|thumb|upright=1.8|A map of the geopolitical situation in 1980]]

▲Carter took office during the [[Cold War]], a sustained period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]]. During the late 1960s and early 1970s, relations between the two [[superpower]]s had improved through a policy known as [[detente]]. In a reflection of the waning importance of the Cold War, some of Carter's contemporaries labeled him as the first post-Cold War president, but relations with the Soviet Union would continue to be an important factor in American foreign policy in the late 1970s and the 1980s. Many of the leading officials in the Carter administration, including Carter himself, were members of the Trilateral Commission, which de-emphasized the Cold War. The Trilateral Commission instead advocated a foreign policy focused on aid to [[Third World]] countries and improved relations with Western Europe and Japan. The central tension of the Carter administration's foreign policy was reflected in the division between Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, who sought improved relations with the Soviet Union and the Third World, and National Security Adviser Zbigniew Brzezinski, who favored confrontation with the Soviet Union on a range of issues.<ref>Herring, pp. 830–833</ref> After the disappointment of the [[Vietnam war]] a re-focus of the [[US Army]] on the [[Warsaw Pact]] problem found that technology and teamwork both were in dire need to be upgraded. Guided by General [[Donn A. Starry]] and the concept that was to become [[AirLand Battle]], Carter and his administration approved the initial outlays for the [[A-10]], [[AH-64]], [[HIMARS]], [[Bradley IFV]], [[M109 Paladin]], [[Patriot missile]], [[M1 Abrams]],<ref name="suprin22">{{cite news |last1=Suprin |first1=John |title=Yom Kippur War & The Development of U.S. Military Doctrine |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IQ_tihjHB3s |agency=YouTube |publisher=The Dole Institute of Politics |date=25 October 2012}}</ref> and the [[Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk]].<ref name="csisrw">{{cite news |last1=Wagner |first1=Rich |last2=Tegnelia |first2=Jim |title=Technology-Strategy Seminar: NATO's AirLand Battle Strategy and Future Extended Deterrence |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rSukv1CcORk |publisher=Center for Strategic & International Studies Center for Strategic & International Studies}}</ref>

====Human rights====

[[File:Nlc02585cs.jpg|thumb|Carter meeting with Chilean dictator [[Augusto Pinochet]], in Washington, September 6, 1977]]

Carter believed that previous administrations had erred in allowing the Cold War concerns and ''[[Realpolitik]]'' to dominate foreign policy. His administration placed a new emphasis on [[human rights]], [[democratic values]], [[nuclear proliferation]], and global poverty.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, pp. 44–46</ref><ref>David F. Schmitz, and Vanessa Walker, "Jimmy Carter and the Foreign Policy of Human Rights: The Development of a Post‐Cold War Foreign Policy." ''Diplomatic History'' 28.1 (2004): 113–143.</ref> The Carter administration's human rights emphasis was part of a broader, worldwide focus on human rights in the 1970s, as [[non-governmental organization]]s such as [[Amnesty International]] and [[Human Rights Watch]] became increasingly prominent. Carter nominated [[civil rights]] activist [[Patricia M. Derian]] as Coordinator for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs, and in August 1977, had the post elevated to that of [[Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs|Assistant Secretary of State]]. Derian established the [[United States' Country Reports on Human Rights Practices]], published annually since 1977.<ref>Herring, pp. 845–846</ref>

Latin America was central to Carter's new focus on human rights.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, pp. 46–47</ref> The Carter administration ended support to the historically U.S.-backed [[Anastasio Somoza Debayle|Somoza]] regime in Nicaragua and directed aid to the new [[Sandinista National Liberation Front]] government that assumed power after Somoza's overthrow. Carter also cut back or terminated military aid to [[Augusto Pinochet]] of [[Chile]], [[Ernesto Geisel]] of Brazil, and [[Jorge Rafael Videla]] of Argentina, all of whom he criticized for human rights violations.<ref>Herring, pp. 846–847</ref>

Carter's ambassador to the United Nations, [[Andrew Young]], was the first African- American to hold a high-level diplomatic post. Along with Carter, he sought to change U.S. policy towards Africa, emphasizing human rights concerns over Cold War issues.<ref>Herring, p. 833</ref> In 1978, Carter became the [[United States presidential visits to Sub-Saharan Africa|first]] sitting president to make an official state visit to [[Subsub-Saharan Africa]],<ref name="dottaway1">{{cite news|last1=Ottaway|first1=David B.|title=Carter Arrives in Nigeria on State Visit|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/04/01/carter-arrives-in-nigeria-on-state-visit/bd7821e0-271a-49c6-b16d-0252f1efeb74/|access-date=4 May 2018|newspaper=New York Times|date=1 April 1978}}</ref> a reflection of the region's new importance under the Carter administration's foreign policy.<ref>Herring, p. 842</ref> Unlike his predecessors, Carter took a strong stance against white minority rule in [[Rhodesia]] and South Africa. With Carter's support, the United Nations passed [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 418|Resolution 418]], which placed an arms embargo on South Africa. Carter won the repeal of the [[Byrd Amendment (1971)|Byrd Amendment]], which had undercut international sanctions on the Rhodesian government of [[Ian Smith]]. He also pressured Smith to hold elections, leading to the [[Zimbabwe Rhodesia general election, 1979|1979 Rhodesia elections]] and the eventual creation of [[Zimbabwe]].<ref>Herring, pp. 842–844</ref>

The more assertive human rights policy championed by Derian and State Department Policy Planning Director [[Anthony Lake]] was somewhat blunted by the opposition of Brzezinski. Policy disputes reached their most contentious point during the 1979 fall of [[Pol Pot]]'s genocidal regime of [[Democratic Kampuchea]] following the [[Cambodian–Vietnamese War|Vietnamese invasion of Cambodia]], when Brzezinski prevailed in having the administration refuse to recognize the new Cambodian government due to its support by the Soviet Union.<ref name=glad>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XhxNCr0_SBYC&q=Pat+Derian |title=''An Outside in the White House'' |author=Glad, Betty |publisher=Cornell University Press, 2009|pages=237–239|isbn=978-0801448157 |year=2009 }}</ref> Despite human rights concerns, Carter continued U.S. support for [[Joseph Mobutu]] of [[Zaire]], who defeated [[Angola]]n-backed insurgents in conflicts known as [[Shaba I]] and [[Shaba II]].<ref>Herring, pp. 844–845</ref> His administration also generally refrained from criticizing human rights abuses in the Philippines, Indonesia, South Korea, Iran, Israel, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and [[Yemen Arab Republic|North Yemen]].<ref>Herring, p. 846</ref><ref>Alter, ''His Very Best: Jimmy Carter, a Life'' (2020) pp 355–370.</ref>

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Ford and Nixon had sought to reach agreement on a second round of the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks]] (SALT), which had set upper limits on the number of nuclear weapons possessed by both the United States and the Soviet Union.<ref>Thornton, ''The Carter Years: Toward a New Global Order'' (1991) pp 186–207, 231–286.</ref> Carter hoped to extend these talks by reaching an agreement to reduce, rather than merely set upper limits on, the nuclear arsenals of both countries.<ref>Herring, pp. 835–836</ref> At the same time, he criticized the Soviet Union's record with regard to human rights, partly because he believed the public would not support negotiations with the Soviets if the president seemed too willing to accommodate the Soviets. Carter and Soviet Leader Leonid Brezhnev reached an agreement in June 1979 in the form of SALT II, but Carter's waning popularity and the opposition of Republicans and [[Neoconservatism|neoconservative]] Democrats made ratification difficult.<ref name="Zelizer 5758">Zelizer, pp. 57–58</ref> The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan severely damaged U.S.-Soviet relations and ended any hope of ratifying SALT II.

==== Yemen ====

In 1979, the Soviets intervened in the [[Yemenite War of 1979|Second Yemenite War]]. The Soviet backing of [[South Yemen]] constituted a "smaller shock", in tandem with the Iranian Revolution. This played a role in shifting Carter's viewpoint on the Soviet Union to a more assertive one, a shift that finalized with the Soviet-Afghan War.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jimmy Carter and the Second Yemenite War: A Smaller Shock of 1979? {{!}} Wilson Center|url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/blog-post/jimmy-carter-and-second-yemenite-war-smaller-shock-1979|access-date=2021-11-21|website=www.wilsoncenter.org|language=en}}</ref>

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[[Afghanistan]] had been non-aligned during the early stages of the Cold War.<ref>Herring, pp. 852–853</ref> In 1978, Communists under the leadership of [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]] [[Saur Revolution|seized power]].<ref name="Kaplan">{{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Robert D.|title=Soldiers of God: With Islamic Warriors in Afghanistan and Pakistan|publisher=Knopf Doubleday|year=2008|isbn=9780307546982|pages=115–117}}</ref> The new regime—which was divided between Taraki's extremist [[Khalq]] faction and the more moderate [[Parcham]]—signed a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union in December 1978.<ref name="Kaplan"/><ref name="Kepel">{{cite book|last=Kepel|first=Gilles|title=Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam|publisher=I.B. Tauris|year=2006|isbn=9781845112578|pages=138–139, 142–144}}</ref> Taraki's efforts to improve secular education and redistribute land were accompanied by mass executions and political oppression unprecedented in Afghan history, igniting a revolt by [[Afghan mujahideen]] rebels.<ref name="Kaplan"/> Following a general uprising in April 1979, Taraki was deposed by Khalq rival [[Hafizullah Amin]] in September.<ref name="Kaplan"/><ref name="Kepel"/> Soviet leaders feared that an Islamist government in Afghanistan would threaten the control of [[Soviet Central Asia]], and, as the unrest continued, they deployed 30,000 soldiers to the Soviet–Afghan border.<ref>Weiner, pp. 422–423</ref> Historian George C. Herring states Carter and Brzezinski both saw Afghanistan as a potential "trap" that could expend Soviet resources in a fruitless war, and the U.S. began sending aid to the mujahideen rebels in mid-1979.<ref>Herring, pp. 853–854</ref> However, a 2020 review of declassified U.S. documents by Conor Tobin in the journal ''[[Diplomatic History (journal)|Diplomatic History]]'' found that "a Soviet military intervention was neither sought nor desired by the Carter administration&nbsp;... The small-scale covert program that developed ''in response'' to the increasing Soviet influence was part of a contingency plan ''if'' the Soviets did intervene militarily, as Washington would be in a better position to make it difficult for them to consolidate their position, but not designed to induce an intervention."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Tobin|first=Conor|title=The Myth of the "Afghan Trap": Zbigniew Brzezinski and Afghanistan, 1978–1979|journal=[[Diplomatic History (journal)|Diplomatic History]]|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|volume=44|issue=2|date=April 2020|pages=237–264|doi=10.1093/dh/dhz065|doi-access=free}}</ref> By December, Amin's government had lost control of much of the country, prompting the Soviet Union to [[Soviet–Afghan War|invade Afghanistan]], execute Amin, and install Parcham leader [[Babrak Karmal]] as president.<ref name="Kaplan"/><ref name="Kepel"/>

Carter was surprised by the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, as the consensus of the U.S. intelligence community during 1978 and 1979 was that Moscow would not forcefully intervene.<ref name="Riedel">{{cite book|author-link=Bruce Riedel|last=Riedel|first=Bruce|title=What We Won: America's Secret War in Afghanistan, 1979–1989|publisher=[[Brookings Institution]] Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0815725954|pages=ix–xi, 21–22, 93, 98–99, 105}}</ref> CIA officials had tracked the deployment of Soviet soldiers to the Afghan border, but they had not expected the Soviets to launch a full-fledged invasion.<ref>Weiner, pp. 423–425</ref> Carter believed that the Soviet conquest of Afghanistan would present a grave threat to the [[Persian Gulf]] region, and he vigorously responded to what he considered a dangerous provocation.<ref name="kaufman197">Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, p. 197</ref> In a televised speech, Carter announced sanctions on the Soviet Union, promised renewed aid to [[Pakistan]], and articulated the [[Carter doctrine]], which stated that the U.S. would repel any attempt to gain control of the Persian Gulf.<ref name="Gates">{{cite book|last=Gates|first=Bob|title=From the Shadows: The Ultimate Insider's Story of Five Presidents and How They Won the Cold War|publisher=Simon and Schuster|year=2007|isbn=9781416543367|pages=145–147}}</ref><ref name="herring853855"/> Pakistani leader [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]] had previously had poor relations with Carter due to [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|Pakistan's nuclear program]] and the execution of [[Zulfikar Ali Bhutto]], but the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and instability in Iran reinvigorated the traditional [[Pakistan–United States relations#Relations during the Cold War|Pakistan–United States alliance]].<ref name="Riedel"/> In cooperation with [[Saudi Arabia]] and Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI), Carter increased aid to the mujahideen through the CIA's [[Operation Cyclone]].<ref name="herring853855">Herring, pp. 853–855</ref> Carter also later announced a U.S. boycott of the [[1980 Summer Olympics]] in Moscow, which was joined by 65 other nations,<ref>Nicholas Evan Sarantakes, ''Dropping the torch: Jimmy Carter, the Olympic boycott, and the Cold War'' (Cambridge UP, 2010).</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Eaton|first1=Joseph|date=November 2016|title=Reconsidering the 1980 Moscow Olympic Boycott: American Sports Diplomacy in East Asian Perspective|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26376807|journal=Diplomatic History|volume=40|issue=5|pages=845–864|doi=10.1093/dh/dhw026|jstor=26376807|access-date=20 June 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Treadaway |first=Dan |date=August 5, 1996 |title=Carter stresses role of Olympics in promoting global harmony |url=https://www.emory.edu/EMORY_REPORT/erarchive/1996/August/ERaug.5/8_5_96carter.html |journal=Emory Report |volume=48| issue = 37}}</ref> and imposed an embargo on shipping American wheat to the Soviet Union. The embargo ultimately hurt American farmers more than it did the Soviet economy, and the United States lifted the embargo after Carter left office.<ref>Robert L. Paarlberg, "Lessons of the grain embargo." Foreign Affairs 59.1 (1980): 144–162. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/20040657 online]</ref>

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan brought a significant change in Carter's foreign policy and ended the period of detente that had begun in the mid-1960s.<ref>Thornton, The Carter Years: Toward a New Global Order (1991) pp 456–493.</ref>

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====Panama Canal treaties====

{{see also|Torrijos–Carter Treaties}}

{{listen|filename=Carter Panama Canal speech.ogg|title=Statement on the Panama Canal Treaty Signing|description=Jimmy Carter's speech upon signing the Panama Canal treaty, September 7, 1977.}}▼

{{listen

|filename=Carter Panama Canal speech.ogg

|title=Statement on the Panama Canal Treaty Signing

▲|description=Jimmy Carter's speech upon signing the Panama Canal treaty, September 7, 1977.

}}

[[File:Jimmy Carter and General Omar Torrijos signing the Panama Canal Treaty.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0| Carter and [[Omar Torrijos]] shake hands moments after the signing of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties.]]

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====Cuba====

{{Further|El Diálogo|Mariel boatlift}}

Carter hoped to improve relations with [[Cuba]] upon taking office, but any thaw in relations was prevented by ongoing Cold War disputes in Central America and Africa. In early 1980, Cuban leader [[Fidel Castro]] announced that anyone who wished to leave Cuba would be allowed to do so through the port of [[Mariel, Cuba|Mariel]]. After Carter announced that the United States would provide "open arms for the tens of thousands of refugees seeking freedom from Communist domination", [[Cuban Americans]] arranged the [[Mariel boatlift]]. The [[Refugee Act]], signed earlier in the year, had provided for annual cap of 19,500 Cuban immigrants to the United States per year, and required that those refugees go through a review process. By September, 125,000 Cubans had arrived in the United States, and many faced a lack of adequate food and housing. Carter was widely criticized for his handling of the boatlift, especially in the electorally important state of Florida.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, pp. 227–228</ref>

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====Rapprochement with China====

{{See also|Sino-American relations}}

[[File:Carter DengXiaoping (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Deng Xiaoping]] with President Carter]]

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====South Korea====

One of Carter's first acts was to order the withdrawal of troops from South Korea, which had hosted a large number of U.S. military personnel since the end of the [[Korean War]]. Carter believed that the soldiers could be put to better use in Western Europe, but opponents of the withdrawal feared that North Korea would invade South Korea in the aftermath of the withdrawal. South Korea and Japan both protested the move, as did many members of Congress, the military, and the State Department. After a strong backlash, Carter delayed the withdrawal, and ultimately only a fraction of the U.S. forces left South Korea. Carter's attempt to remove U.S. forces from South Korea weakened the government of South Korean President [[Park Chung-hee]], who was [[Assassination of Park Chung-hee|assassinated]] in 1979.<ref>Herring, pp. 834–835</ref>

===Africa===

In sharp contrast to Nixon and Ford, Carter gave priority to sub-Sahara Africa.<ref>Gaddis Smith, ''Morality Reason, and Power: American Diplomacy in the Carter Years'' (1986) pp 133–56.</ref><ref>For highly detailed scholarly coverage see Nancy Mitchell, ''Jimmy Carter in Africa: Race and the Cold War'' (Stanford UP, 2016), 913pp. [https://www.amazon.com/Jimmy-Carter-Africa-International-History-ebook/dp/B01FAN5UBA/ excerpt]</ref> [[Southern Africa]] especially emerged as a Cold War battleground after Cuba sent a large military force that took control of Angola in 1976.<ref>{{cite web |date=2016-10-20 |title=Over Where? Cuban Fighters in Angola's Civil War |url=https://www.historynet.com/cuban-fighters-angolas-civil-war/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=HistoryNet |language=en-US}}</ref> The chief policy person for Africa in the Carter administration was Andrew Young, a leader in the black Atlanta community who became Ambassador to the United Nations. Young opened up friendly relationships with key leaders, especially in Nigeria. A highly controversial issue was independence of [[Namibia]] from [[Union of South Africa]]. Young began United Nations discussions which went nowhere, and Namibia would not gain independence until long after Carter left office.<ref>Piero Gleijeses, "A Test of Wills: Jimmy Carter, South Africa, and the Independence of Namibia." ''Diplomatic History'' 34.5 (2010): 853–891.</ref> Young advocated strong sanctions after the murder by South African police of [[Steve Biko]] in 1977, but Carter refused and only imposed a limited arms embargo and South Africa ignored the protests.<ref>Alex Thomson, "The Diplomacy of Impasse: the Carter Administration and Apartheid South Africa." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 21.1 (2010): 107–124.</ref> The most important success of the Carter administration in Africa was helping the transition from white-dominated Southern Rhodesia to black rule in [[Zimbabwe]].<ref>Andrew J. DeRoche, ''Andrew Young: Civil Rights Ambassador'' (2003).</ref><ref>Robert Schulzinger, ed., ''A Companion to American Foreign Relations'' (2006), pp 115–17.</ref>

===List of international trips===

{{main|List of international presidential trips made by Jimmy Carter}}

▲Carter made 12 international trips to 25 different countries during his presidency.<ref>{{cite web|url= https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/carter-jimmy|title= Travels of President Jimmy Carter|publisher= U.S. Department of State Office of the Historian|access-date= 2023-12-15|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230425134933/https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/travels/president/carter-jimmy|archive-date= 2023-04-25|url-status= live}}</ref>

[[File:US President Jimmy Carter Presidential Trips.PNG|thumb|center|upright=2.5|alt=A map of the world. The United States is indicated in Blue, while countries visit by President Carter during his presidency are indicated in Purple. Other countries are indicated in grey.|Countries visited by President Jimmy Carter, 1977–1981]]

==Controversies==

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==1980 presidential election==

{{Main|Jimmy Carter# 1980 presidential campaign|1980 United States presidential election|Presidential transition of Ronald Reagan}}

{{Further|1980 United States elections|1980 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1980 Democratic National Convention}}

[[File:Gallup Poll-Approval Rating-Jimmy CarterElectoralCollege1980.pngsvg|thumb|upright=1.45|GraphRepublican of[[Ronald Carter'sReagan]] approvaldefeated ratingsPresident Carter in [[Gallupthe (company)|Gallup]]1980 presidential pollselection]]

[[File:President Jimmy Carter welcomes President-elect Ronal Reagan and Nancy Reagan to the White House for a tour.jpg|thumb|Outgoing President Jimmy Carter and President-elect [[Ronald Reagan]] with his wife [[Nancy Reagan|Nancy]] in the [[Oval Office]] on November 20, 1980]]▼

In April 1978, polling showed that Carter's approval rating had declined precipitously, and a Gallup survey found Carter trailing Ted Kennedy for the 1980 Democratic nomination.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, p. 101</ref> By mid-1979, Carter faced an energy crisis, rampant inflation, slow economic growth, and the widespread perception that his administration was incompetent.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, p. 176</ref> In November 1979, Kennedy announced that he would challenge Carter in the [[1980 Democratic Party presidential primaries|1980 Democratic primaries]].<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, p. 184</ref> Carter's polling numbers shot up following the start of the Iran hostage crisis,<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, pp. 194–195</ref> and his response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan further boosted his prospects in the Democratic primaries.<ref name="kaufman197"/> Carter dominated the early primaries, allowing him to amass an early delegate lead. Carter's polling numbers tumbled in March, and Kennedy won the New York and Connecticut primaries.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, pp. 208–210</ref> Though Carter developed a wide delegate lead, Kennedy stayed in the race after triumphing in Pennsylvania and Michigan.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, pp. 210–211</ref> By the day of the final primaries, Carter had registered the lowest approval ratings in the history of presidential polling, and Kennedy won just enough delegates to prevent Carter from clinching the nomination.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, pp. 217–220</ref>

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The [[1980 Republican Party presidential primaries|1980 Republican presidential primaries]] quickly developed into a two-man contest between former Governor Ronald Reagan of California and former Congressman [[George H. W. Bush]] of Texas. Bush, who referred to Reagan's tax cut proposal as "voodoo economics", won the Iowa Caucus but faded later in the race. Reagan won the presidential nomination on the first ballot of the [[1980 Republican National Convention]] and named Bush as his running mate.<ref>Patterson, pp. 128–129</ref> Meanwhile, Republican Congressman [[John B. Anderson]], who had previously sought the Republican presidential nomination, launched an independent campaign for president.<ref>Zelizer, p. 108</ref> Polls taken in September, after the conclusion of the party conventions, showed a tied race between Reagan and Carter.<ref>Zelizer, p. 115</ref> The Carter campaign felt confident that the country would reject the conservative viewpoints espoused by Reagan, and there were hopeful signs with regards to the economy and the Iranian hostage crisis.<ref>Zelizer, pp. 115–116</ref> Seeking to unite Democrats behind his re-election campaign, Carter decided to focus on attacking Reagan's supposed ideological extremism rather than on his own policies.<ref>Kaufman and Kaufman, 2006, pp. 235–237</ref>

[[File:ElectoralCollege1980.svg|thumb|right|Republican [[Ronald Reagan]] defeated Carter in the 1980 presidential election]]

▲[[File:President Jimmy Carter welcomes President-elect Ronal Reagan and Nancy Reagan to the White House for a tour.jpg|thumb|Outgoing President Jimmy Carter and President-elect [[Ronald Reagan]] with his wife [[Nancy Reagan|Nancy]] in the [[Oval Office]] on November 20, 1980]]

A key strength for Reagan was his appeal to the rising conservative movement, as epitomized by activists like [[Paul Weyrich]], [[Richard Viguerie]], and [[Phyllis Schlafly]]. Though most conservative leaders espoused cutting taxes and budget deficits, many conservatives focused more closely on social issues like [[Abortion in the United States|abortion]] and homosexuality.<ref>Patterson, pp. 130–134</ref> Developments of the 1970s, including the Supreme Court case of ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' and the withdrawal of [[Bob Jones University]]'s tax-exempt status, convinced many evangelical Protestants to become engaged in politics for the first time. Evangelical Protestants became an increasingly important voting bloc, and they enthusiastically supported Reagan in the 1980 campaign.<ref>Patterson, pp. 135–141, 150</ref> Reagan also won the backing of so-called "[[Reagan Democrat]]s", who tended to be Northern, white, working-class voters who supported liberal economic programs but disliked policies such as affirmative action.<ref>Patterson, p. 131</ref> Though he advocated socially conservative view points, Reagan focused much of his campaign on attacks against Carter's foreign policy, including the SALT II treaty, the Torrijos–Carter Treaties, and the revocation of the Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty.<ref>Patterson, pp. 145–146</ref> Reagan called for increased defense spending, tax cuts, domestic spending cuts, and the dismantling of the Department of Education and the Department of Energy.<ref>Patterson, p. 147</ref>

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==Evaluation and legacy==

[[File:Gallup Poll-Approval Rating-Jimmy Carter.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Graph of Carter's approval ratings in [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] polls]]

Polls of historians and political scientists have generally [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|ranked]] Carter as a below-average president. A 2018 poll of the [[American Political Science Association]]'s Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Carter as the 26th best president.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Rottinghaus|first1=Brandon|last2=Vaughn|first2=Justin S.|title=How Does Trump Stack Up Against the Best — and Worst — Presidents?|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/02/19/opinion/how-does-trump-stack-up-against-the-best-and-worst-presidents.html/|access-date=14 May 2018|newspaper=New York Times|date=19 February 2018}}</ref> A 2017 [[C-SPAN]] poll of historians also ranked Carter as the 26th best president.<ref>{{cite web|title=Presidential Historians Survey 2017|url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2017/?page=overall|website=C-SPAN|access-date=14 May 2018}}</ref> Some critics have compared Carter to Herbert Hoover, who was similarly a "hardworking but uninspiring technocrat."<ref>Patterson, p. 111</ref>

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[[Category:Presidencies of the United States|Carter, Jimmy]]

[[Category:Jimmy Carter]]

[[Category:Rosalynn Carter]]

[[Category:Walter Mondale]]

[[Category:1970s in the United States]]

[[Category:1980s in the United States]]

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[[Category:1977 establishments in the United States]]

[[Category:1981 disestablishments in the United States]]

[[Category:Cold War history of the United States]]