List of Chinese monarchs
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Article ImagesThe Chinese monarchs were the rulers of China during its Ancient and Imperial periods.[a] The earliest rulers in traditional Chinese historiography are of mythological origin, and followed by the Xia dynasty of highly uncertain and contested historicity. During the subsequent Shang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and Zhou (1046–256 BCE) dynasties, rulers were referred to as Wang 王, meaning king.[4] China was fully united for the first time by Qin Shi Huang (r. 259–210 BCE), who established the first Imperial dynasty, adopting the title Huangdi (皇帝), meaning Emperor, which remained in use until the Imperial system's fall in 1912.[4]
At no point during Ancient or Imperial China was there a formalized means to confer legitimate succession between rulers.[5] From the Zhou dynasty onwards, monarchs justified their reigns by claiming the Mandate of Heaven (天命; Tianming).[6][b] The mandate held that a ruler and their successors had permission from the heavens to rule as long as they did so effectively.[6] It also declared a ruler the Son of Heaven (天子; Tianzi), giving them the right to rule "all under heaven" (天下; Tianxia).[10] Given the Mandate's subjective nature, rulers also utilized a variety of methods to retain support and justify their accession.[6] This ranged from military enforcement, political patronage, establishing peace and solidity, institutional reform, and historical revisionism to legitimize the dissolution of previous dynasties and their own succession.[11] For most of Imperial China, the wuxing (五行; "Five Elements") philosophical scheme was also central to justify dynastic succession.[12]
Most Chinese monarchs had many names. They were given a personal name (名字; Mingzi) at birth, but later referred to by a posthumous name (謚號; Shihao)—which memorialized their accomplishments or character—due to a cultural naming taboo.[13] Most emperors of the Imperial period also received a temple name (廟號; Miaohao), used to venerate them in ancestor worship.[14] From the rule of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) onwards,[c] emperors also adopted one or several era names (年號; Nianhao), or "reign mottos",[17] to divide their rule by important events or accomplishments.[18] Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) rulers are referred to solely by their era names, of which they only had one.[19]
Apart from ethnic Han rulers, China was also ruled by various non-Han monarchs, including Jurchen, Khitan, Manchu, Mongol and Tangut and many others.[20] To justify their reign, non-Han rulers sometimes aligned themselves with the Confucian sages or the Chakravarti of Chinese Buddhism.[5] There are numerous lengthy periods where many competing kingdoms claimed the throne, many of whose legitimacy is still debated by scholars.[20]
In traditional Chinese historiography, various models of mythological founding rulers exist.[21] The relevancy of these figures to the earliest Chinese people is unknown, since most accounts of them were written from the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BCE) onwards.[22] The sinologist Kwang-chih Chang has generalized the typical stages: "the first period was populated by gods, the second by demigods/culture hero, and the third by the legendary kings."[23] The primordial god Pangu is given by many texts as the earliest figure and is credited with forming the world by separating heaven and earth.[24] Other gods include Nüwa, who repaired heaven; Hou Yi, a mythical archer; and Gonggong, a serpent-like water deity.[25]
Demigod and hero rulers from hero myths—the largest group Chinese myths—are attributed the invention of specific items, practices or traditions.[26] Among the more important of them are Fuxi, the inventor of hunting; Suiren, who invented fire; and Shennong, who invented both agriculture and medicine.[27] The subsequent legendary kings began with the Yellow Emperor (黃帝), known as Huangdi, a major culture hero of Chinese civilization whose reign was considered exemplary.[27] Succeeding rulers include some combination of Shaohao, Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun.[28] Since the late Warring States onwards, early Chinese monarchs have traditionally been ground into the concept of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors;[28] however, the chosen figures of this grouping varies considerably between sources.[27] Generally, most accounts include at least Fuxi and Shennong among the Three Sovereigns as well as the Yellow Emperor, Yao and Shun among the Five Emperors.[28]
The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period was followed by the Xia dynasty in traditional historiography.[29] Founded by Yu the Great, both the dynasty and its rulers are of highly uncertain and controversial historicity.[29][30]
(#) – Uncertain legitimacy
Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BCE)
Unlike the Xia, the Shang dynasty's historicity is firmly established, due to written records on divination objects known as Oracle bones. The oldest such oracle bones date to the Late Shang (c. 1250—1046 BCE), during the reign of Wu Ding (1250–1192), putting the exact details of earlier rulers into doubt.[43][44]
(#) – Uncertain legitimacy
Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BCE)
Early imperial China
Qin dynasty (221–207 BCE)
Han and Xin dynasties (202 BCE – 220 CE)
(#) – contested legitimacy
Three Kingdoms (220–280)
Eastern Wu (222–280)
Jin dynasty (266–420)
Sixteen Kingdoms (304–439)
Northern and Southern Dynasties (420–589)
Northern Dynasties (420–581)
Southern Dynasties (420–589)
Sui dynasty (581–619)
Tang and Zhou dynasties (618–907)
Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms
Five Dynasties (907–912)
Ten Kingdoms (907–979)
Song dynasty (960–1279)
Northern regimes (916–1234)
Liao dynasty (916–1125)
Western Xia (1038–1227)
Jin dynasty (1115–1234)
Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
Qing dynasty (1644–1912)
- ^ Contemporary scholars often split Chinese history into three periods: Ancient, Imperial and Modern, based on the Ancient, Medieval and Modern scheme developed by Liang Qichao.[1] In Chinese history, "Medieval"—originally defined as from the Qin to Qing dynasties—has since been replaced by "Imperial".[2] "Medieval" now refers to the more specific period from the End of the Han dynasty through the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.[3]
- ^ The Mandate of Heaven is essentially equivalent to the European divine right of kings.[7] It was first formally introduced by the Duke of Zhou to justify his house's overthrow of the Shang.[7] Prior to this, the Shang kings justified their rule by being claiming descent from a "divine ancestor",[8] and being able to interpret, manipulate and maintain cosmic relations between humans and heaven (天; Tian).[9]
- ^ Although era names originated in the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE),[15] his two immediate predecessors Emperor Wen of Han (r. 180–157) and Emperor Jing of Han (r. 157–141) were also given era names later.[16]
- ^ All reign dates for the Xia rulers are excluded. They are highly speculative, due to their dependence on the already uncertain beginning and ending dates of the dynasty
- ^ The traditional dating method (beginning the Shang in 1766) is not included in this table. See Liu et al. 2021, pp. 165, 169 for another, more recent, method of dating
- ^ Zu Ji, another son of Wu Ding is given a kingly title in some oracle bone texts, but did probably not reign.[61]
- ^ In his lifetime, Ying Zheng would have been known as simply "Shi Huangdi", but after the Qin's fall it became standard practice to include the dynasty's name when referring to him. His dynastic name is commonly abbreviated to 'Qin Shi Huang'. In its fullest form, it would be: Qin Shi Huangdi (秦始皇帝)[4]
- ^ Qin Shi Huang began his reign as king of Qin in 246 BCE, but did not unite China and proclaim himself Emperor (皇帝 Huangdi) until 221 BCE.[81]
- ^ Moule 1957, p. 3 gives 18 July 210 BCE as the exact date for the end of Qin Shi Huang's reign, but also notes the issues surrounding this chronology. The date is accepted by Vervoorn 1990, p. 311, but it's not used by modern scholars.[82][83] Hymes 2000, p. 8 gives July–August 210 BCE, the seventh lunar month.
- ^ In its fullest form, Ying Huhai's dynastic name would be Qin Er Shi Huangdi (秦二世皇帝)[4]
- ^ Sources vary on the exact month of Qin Er Shi's accession, though they agree it was in late 210. Vervoorn 1990, p. 311 gives August 210 while Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, p. xix and Moule 1957, p. 3 give September–October 210
- ^ After Qin Er Shi's death the Qin dynasty became increasingly weaker in power, so Zhao Gao proclaimed the state was once again a kingdom, not an empire. Thus when Ziying (子嬰) ascended to the throne, he only ruled as a King of Qin.[89] After ruling for 46 days in late 207 BCE, Ziying surrendered to Liu Bang and was later killed by Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han Contention.[90][91]
- ^ Liu Bang began his peasant revolt in 209 BCE, during the collapse of the Qin dynasty. He assumed the title "King of Han" (漢王) in 206 BCE, referencing his dominions near the Han river. He only assumed the title of Emperor (皇帝; Huangdi) in 202 BCE after his victory in the Chu–Han Contention.[93]
- ^ Also known as:
Shaodi Gong
少帝恭[96] - ^ a b In order to justify Emperor Wen of Han's overthrow of the House of Lü's puppets, Houshao and Qianshao, both of the dynasty's official histories—the Shiji and Hanshu—assert that neither was actually a son of Hui.[97]
- ^ Also known as:
Shaodi Hong
少帝弘[99] - ^ a b Though most modern sources agree that Emperor Wu died on 29 March 87 BCE, Vervoorn 1990, p. 312 gives 2 March; Moule 1957, p. 5 gives 27 March.
- ^ Liu Yi reigned for less than a year, so thus did not live long enough to receive an era name[120]
- ^ de Crespigny 2010, p. 450 notes that "On 11 December [...] Cao Cao's son and successor Cao Pi received the abdication of the last emperor of Han. [...] Some authorities give the date of abdication as 25 November [...] This is the date upon which Emperor Xian issued an edict calling upon Cao Pi to take the throne, but the ceremonial transfer of sovereignty was carried out two weeks later"
- ^ Not counting Ruzi Ying, who never officially ascended to the throne.
- ^ Also known as:
Duke of Haixi
海西公[151] - ^ Moule 1957, p. 34 gives 30 May 618 as the date for the end of Yang You's reign, but modern sources usually give 12 June.[240]
- ^ Also known as "Wu Hou" (武后). The title Huanghou (皇后) given to consorts it's often translated as "Empress consort" in English. Though often translated as "Emperor" in this context, the title Huangdi, as well as many other Chinese words, has no assigned gender.[247]
- ^ Li Chongmao is often referred by his posthumous name; he's also known as "Emperor Shao" (少皇帝), referencing his brief reign.
- ^ Emperor Zhaozong was briefly deposed in December 900 by eunuch Liu Jishu, but he regained the throne just a month later.[266]
- ^ Moule 1957, p. 62 gives 1 June 907 as the date for the end of Emperor Ai's reign, but Kroll 2019, p. 1 gives 5 June. Other sources give 12 May.
- ^ Emperor Gaozong was briefly deposed between March and April 1129. He was forced to abdicate in favor of his infant son Zhao Fu.[315]
- ^ Born as Zhao Bocong (趙伯琮), later changed to Zhao Wei (趙瑋) in 1160.[317]
- ^ For Taizu's aternate posthumous names, see Moule 1957, p. 94
- ^ In 1008, Taizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaowu (孝武). This was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaowu Huiwen (孝武惠文皇帝).[327]
- ^ Some sources differ over the dates for Taizong's Datong era, see Moule 1957, p. 95
- ^ In 952, Shizong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaohe (孝和) this was changed in 1008 to Emperor Xiaohe Zhuangxian (孝和莊憲皇帝).[327]
- ^ In 983, Jingzong was originally given the posthumous name Emperor Xiaocheng (孝成) this was changed in 1052 to Emperor Xiaocheng Kangjing (孝成康靖皇帝).[327]
- ^ See Cui & Wen 2007 for further information on the complexities surrounding the names of the Western Xia rulers
- ^ a b The death of Jingzong is uncertain and contradictory in many records. He may have died in late 1047 or early 1048.[336]
- ^ Moule 1957, p. 101 notes that there is uncertainty concerning Wanyan Yongji's death date
- ^ Some uncertainty surrounds his birth and death dates, see Ch'i-Ch'ing 1994, p. 353
- ^ Ukhaghatu Khan's posthumous name was given by the Ming court[356]
- ^ In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Hongwu (洪武) era did not technically end with the Hongwu Emperor's death on 24 June 1398, but ended on 5 February 1399 when the subsequent Jianwen Emperor began a new era on 6 February 1399.[358]
- ^ The temple name Huizong was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by Zhu Yousong, the Prince of Fu, in 1644.[360]
- ^ The posthumous name Emperor Gongmin Hui was given to the Jianwen Emperor long after his reign by the Qianlong Emperor in 1736.[360]
- ^ Following his death, the Yongle Emperor was given the temple name Taizong (太宗) by his successor the Hongxi Emperor, but this was changed on 3 October 1538 to Chengzu (成祖) by the Jiajing Emperor. The latter has been used since its bestowment[360]
- ^ a b From 1 September 1449 to 20 September 1450, Emperor Yingzong was a captive of the Northern Yuan dynasty during the Tumu Crisis. He was restored to power on 11 February 1457.[365]
- ^ In the Qing dynasty, a few days usually separate each emperor's reign. When a Qing emperor died there was a period of mourning, after which the successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year. Thus, the Shunzhi (順治) era did not technically end with the Shunzhi Emperor's death on 5 February 1661, but ended on 17 February 1662 when the subsequent Kangxi Emperor began a new era on 18 February 1662.[378]
- ^ There are popular, though unsubstantiated, rumors that the Yongzheng Emperor was killed by the daughter of Lü Liuliang, whom he had executed.[382]
- ^ a b The Xuantong Emperor was only given posthumous and temple names in 2004 when the Qing family's descendants bestowed him with them.[378]
- ^ Wilkinson 2018, p. 1.
- ^ Wilkinson 2018, pp. 1, 5.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 1–32.
- ^ a b c d Wilkinson 2018, p. 287.
- ^ a b Wilkinson 2018, p. 8.
- ^ a b c Wilkinson 2018, p. 7.
- ^ a b Wechsler 1985, p. 12.
- ^ Wilkinson 2018, p. 9.
- ^ Wang 2000, p. 193.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Wilkinson 2018, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Chen 2014, pp. 325–326.
- ^ Wilkinson 2018, pp. 288, 290–291.
- ^ Wilkinson 2018, p. 288.
- ^ Wright & Fagan 1951, p. 113.
- ^ Moule 1957, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Theobald 2011a.
- ^ Wright & Fagan 1951, pp. 113–114.
- ^ Wilkinson 2018, pp. 294–295.
- ^ a b Biran 2017, p. 130.
- ^ Chang 1999, pp. 65–66.
- ^ Chang 1999, p. 67; Wilkinson 2018, p. 746.
- ^ Chang 1999, p. 66.
- ^ Wilkinson 2018, p. 746; Chang 1999, pp. 66–67.
- ^ Chang 1999, pp. 66–68.
- ^ Chang 1999, pp. 68–69.
- ^ a b c Chang 1999, p. 70.
- ^ a b c Wilkinson 2018, p. 747.
- ^ a b Morton & Lewis 2004, p. 14.
- ^ Chang 1999, pp. 71–73.
- ^ Theobald 2018a.
- ^ Imperial China 2020, pp. 314–316.
- ^ Wu 1982, pp. 110–117; Imperial China 2020, pp. 30, 314.
- ^ Wu 1982, pp. 117–119; Imperial China 2020, p. 314.
- ^ Wu 1982, pp. 119–121; Imperial China 2020, p. 314.
- ^ Wu 1982, pp. 121–122; Imperial China 2020, p. 314.
- ^ Wu 1982, pp. 122–123; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
- ^ Wu 1982, pp. 123–125; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
- ^ Wu 1982, pp. 125–126; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
- ^ Wu 1982, pp. 126–127; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
- ^ Wu 1982, pp. 129–143; Imperial China 2020, p. 315.
- ^ Keightley 1999, p. 232.
- ^ Wilkinson 2018, p. 1277.
- ^ a b Keightley 1985, pp. 204–207.
- ^ Moule 1957, p. xiv.
- ^ Indiana University 2006, pp. 2–3.
- ^ Theobald 2018b.
- ^ a b Lee 2002, p. 18.
- ^ a b XSZCP Group 2000, pp. 86–88.
- ^ Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999, p. 25.
- ^ Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999, p. 2.
- ^ a b c d e f Imperial China 2020, p. 316.
- ^ a b Indiana University 2006.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Imperial China 2020, p. 317.
- ^ a b c d e f g Imperial China 2020, p. 318.
- ^ Keightley 1985, pp. xiii–xiv.
- ^ Shaughnessy 1997, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Keightley 1985, p. xiii.
- ^ Li (2012), p. 13.
- ^ Indiana University 2006, p. 3; Theobald 2018b.
- ^ Keightley 1985, p. 187.
- ^ Imperial China 2020, pp. 318–319.
- ^ a b c d Imperial China 2020, p. 319.
- ^ Shaughnessy 1997, p. 14.
- ^ Marshall 2001, p. 157.
- ^ Marshall 2001, pp. 157–158.
- ^ Lee 2002, pp. 31–32.
- ^ a b Loewe & Shaughnessy 1999, pp. 25–28.
- ^ Moule 1957, pp. xvii–xviii.
- ^ a b c Imperial China 2020, p. 320.
- ^ Imperial China 2020, pp. 320–321.
- ^ a b c d e Imperial China 2020, p. 321.
- ^ Imperial China 2020, pp. 321–322.
- ^ a b c Imperial China 2020, p. 322.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Imperial China 2020, p. 323.
- ^ a b c d e f g Imperial China 2020, p. 324.
- ^ Imperial China 2020, pp. 324–325.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Imperial China 2020, p. 325.
- ^ Loewe 2000, p. 823; Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. XIX–XX.
- ^ Vervoorn 1990, p. 311.
- ^ Loewe 2000, p. 823.
- ^ Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, p. xix.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 16–17.
- ^ Loewe 2000, pp. 654–655.
- ^ Wright 2001, p. 49.
- ^ Loewe 2004, p. 575.
- ^ Loewe 2000, pp. 652–653.
- ^ Xiong & Hammond 2019, p. 23.
- ^ Loewe 2000, p. 752.
- ^ Xiong & Hammond 2019, p. 24.
- ^ Barbieri-Low & Yates 2015, pp. xix–xx; Vervoorn 1990, pp. 311–315; Twitchett & Loewe 1986, pp. xxxix–xli; Moule 1957, pp. 4–11.
- ^ Loewe 1986, pp. 111–116.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 28–31; Loewe 2000, pp. 253–259.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 31; Loewe 2000, pp. 397–399.
- ^ Loewe 2000, p. 468.
- ^ Theobald 2011b.
- ^ Loewe 2000, p. 468; Paludan 1998, p. 31.
- ^ Loewe 2000, p. 394.
- ^ Loewe 2000, p. 394; Paludan 1998, p. 31.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 33; Loewe 2004.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 33; Loewe 2004, pp. 338–344.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 36–39; Loewe 2004, pp. 273–282; Hymes 2000, p. 11.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 40; Loewe 2004, pp. 298–301.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 40; Loewe 2004, pp. 305–306.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 40; Loewe 2004, pp. 260–267.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 355–360.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 245–252.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 378–383.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 322–326.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 42; Loewe 2004, pp. 396–397.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 42–43; Loewe 2000, pp. 536–545.
- ^ de Crespigny 2007, pp. 567–569.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 44–45; Loewe 2004, p. 389; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 557–569.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 48–49; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 604–609.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 48–49; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 495–500.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 50–51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 588–593.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 50–51; de Crespigny 2007, p. 531.
- ^ Paludan 1998, pp. 50–51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 580–583.
- ^ a b de Crespigny 2007, p. 576.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 473–478.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 486–487.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 610–611.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 51; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 595–603.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 52, 54–55; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 510–517.
- ^ de Crespigny 2007, pp. 484–485.
- ^ Paludan 1998, p. 55; de Crespigny 2007, pp. 554–556.
- ^ Beck 1986, p. 352; de Crespigny 2007, p. 37.
- ^ de Crespigny 2007, p. 452; Moule 1957, p. 12.
- ^ de Crespigny 2007, p. 47; Moule 1957, p. 13.
- ^ de Crespigny 1991, p. 33; Moule 1957, p. 13.
- ^ de Crespigny 1991, pp. 34–35; Moule 1957, p. 13.
- ^ de Crespigny 1991, p. 35; Moule 1957, p. 13.
- ^ de Crespigny 2007, pp. 478–483; Moule 1957, p. 14.
- ^ de Crespigny 2007, pp. 541–542; Moule 1957, p. 14.
- ^ de Crespigny 2007, pp. 772–774; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 52; Moule 1957, p. 15.
- ^ a b de Crespigny 1991, p. 17; Moule 1957, p. 15.
- ^ de Crespigny 1991, pp. 17–18.
- ^ Hong Lee 2015, p. xix.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 554; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 79–92.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 232; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 466.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 222; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 362; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 92–93.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 645; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 93–104; Moule 1957, p. 18.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 362; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 104–105; Moule 1957, p. 18.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 87; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 105–106; Moule 1957, p. 18.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 276; Moule 1957, p. 18.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 367; Moule 1957, p. 18.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 38; Moule 1957, p. 18.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 199.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 199; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 111; Moule 1957, p. 18.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 248; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 111; Moule 1957, p. 19.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 575; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 111–114; Moule 1957, p. 19.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 42; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 114–117; Moule 1957, p. 19.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 181.
- ^ Adamek 2017, p. 341.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 309; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 150–153.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 292; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 153.
- ^ a b c Xiong 2009, pp. 301–302; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 153–154.
- ^ Adamek 2017, p. 341; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. xix.
- ^ a b Xiong 2009, pp. 328–330.
- ^ a b c Xiong 2009, pp. 322–324.
- ^ a b c d e f g Xiong 2009, pp. 449–452; Dien & Knapp 2019, pp. 127–130.
- ^ Adamek 2017, pp. 342–343.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 663–668; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 133.
- ^ a b c d e f Xiong 2009, pp. 663–668.
- ^ a b Xiong 2009, p. 661.
- ^ a b c d e Adamek 2017, p. 342.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 368–369; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 130–133.
- ^ a b c d Adamek 2017, p. 344.
- ^ a b c d e f Xiong 2009, pp. 163–164; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 134–137.
- ^ a b c d Xiong 2009, pp. 367–369.
- ^ a b c Xiong 2009, pp. 617–618; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. 137–138.
- ^ a b c d Xiong 2009, p. 406.
- ^ Adamek 2017, p. 343; Dien & Knapp 2019, p. xix.
- ^ a b c d Xiong 2009, pp. 350–351.
- ^ a b Adamek 2017, p. 343.
- ^ a b c Xiong 2009, pp. 511.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 136.
- ^ a b Xiong 2009, pp. 273.
- ^ a b Xiong 2009, pp. 367–368.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 296.
- ^ a b Xiong 2009, pp. 304–305.
- ^ a b c d e Xiong 2009, p. 210.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 153–154.
- ^ Adamek 2017, pp. 346–347.
- ^ a b c Xiong 2009, pp. 514–515; Imperial China 2020, p. 340; Liu 2020, pp. 26–28.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 516; Imperial China 2020, p. 340.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 542; Imperial China 2020, pp. 340–341.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 569; Imperial China 2020, p. 341.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 575; Imperial China 2020, p. 341.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 595; Imperial China 2020, p. 341.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 574; Imperial China 2020, p. 341.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 644–645.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 576; Imperial China 2020, pp. 341–342.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 644–645; Imperial China 2020, p. 342.
- ^ a b Xiong 2009, pp. 642–643; Imperial China 2020, p. 342.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 642–643; Imperial China 2020, pp. 342–343.
- ^ a b c Adamek 2017, p. 347.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 574; Imperial China 2020, p. 343.
- ^ a b c Xiong 2009, pp. 173–174; Imperial China 2020, p. 344.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 173–174; Imperial China 2020, pp. 344–345.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 173–174; Imperial China 2020, p. 345.
- ^ Xiong 2009, p. 171; Imperial China 2020, pp. 345–346.
- ^ a b c Xiong 2009, pp. 642–643; Imperial China 2020, p. 344.
- ^ Adamek 2017, p. 348.
- ^ Xiong 2009, pp. 654–656; Imperial China 2020, pp. 346–347.
- ^ a b c d Xiong 2009, pp. 654–656; Imperial China 2020, p. 347.
- ^ a b c Adamek 2017, p. 345.
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