Camera: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{short description|Optical device for recording images}} ~~Thomas Fortner is the goat~~

A '''camera''' is an instrument used to capture and store images and videos, either digitally via an electronic [[image sensor]], or chemically via a light-sensitive material such as [[photographic film]]. As a pivotal technology in the fields of photography and videography, cameras have played a significant role in the progression of visual arts, media, entertainment, surveillance, and scientific research. The invention of the camera dates back to the 19th century and has since evolved with advancements in technology, leading to a vast array of types and models in the 21st century.

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=== 19th century ===

Beginning with the use of the [[camera obscura]] and transitioning to complex photographic cameras, the evolution of the technology in the 19th century was driven by pioneers like [[Thomas Wedgwood (photographer)|Thomas Wedgwood]], [[Nicéphore Niépce]], and [[Henry ~~Talbot (photographer)|Henry~~Fox Talbot]]. First using the camera obscura for chemical experiments, they ultimately created cameras specifically for chemical photography, and later reduced the camera's size and optimized lens configurations.

The introduction of the [[daguerreotype]] process in 1839 facilitated commercial camera manufacturing, with various producers contributing diverse designs. As camera manufacturing became a specialized trade in the 1850s, designs and sizes were standardized.

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Light enters the camera through an aperture, an opening adjusted by overlapping plates called the aperture ring.<ref name="Columbia">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=camera|encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia|publisher=Columbia University Press|url=https://www.pin1.harvard.edu/pin/authenticate?__authen_application=HUL_ACC_MGMT_SVC&__hulaccess_gateway=ezproxy&__hulaccess_resource=zorecord&__hulaccess_url=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.credoreference.com%2Fcontent%2Ftopic%2Fcamera|last=Columbia University|date=2018|editor=Paul Lagasse|edition=8|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref name="How-Stuff-Works">{{Cite web|title=How Cameras Work|url=https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/camera.htm/printable|access-date=13 December 2019|work=How Stuff Works|date=21 March 2001|archive-date=14 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214060333/https://electronics.howstuffworks.com/camera.htm/printable|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Dawn">Laney, Dawn A. ..BA, MS, CGC, CCRC. “Camera Technologies.” ''Salem Press Encyclopedia of Science'', June 2020. Accessed 6 February 2022.</ref> Typically located in the lens,<ref name="Warren-Camera">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Camera: An Overview|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of twentieth-century photography|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|date=2006|editor=Lynne Warren|isbn=978-1-57958-393-4}}</ref> this opening can be widened or narrowed to alter the amount of light that strikes the film or sensor.<ref name="Columbia" /> The size of the aperture can be set manually, by rotating the lens or adjusting a dial or automatically based on readings from an internal light meter.<ref name="Columbia" />

As the aperture is adjusted, the opening expands and contracts in increments called [[f-number|''f-stops'']].{{efn|These f-stops are also referred to as ''f-numbers'', ''stop numbers'', ''steps'' or ''stops''. ~~Technically the~~The f-number is the focal length of the lens divided by the diameter of the effective aperture.}}<ref name="Columbia" /> The smaller the f-stop, the more light is allowed to enter the lens, increasing the exposure. Typically, f-stops range from {{f/}}1.4 to {{f/}}32{{Efn|Theoretically, they can extend to {{f/}}64 or higher.<ref name="Dawn" />}} in standard increments: 1.4, 2, 2.8, 4, 5.6, 8, 11, 16, 22, and 32.<ref name="Britannica-Technology">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=technology of photography|encyclopedia=Britannica Academic|url=https://academic-eb-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/levels/collegiate/article/technology-of-photography/108552#36407.toc|access-date=13 December 2019|url-access=subscription|archive-date=10 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110043035/https://www.pin1.harvard.edu/cas/login?service=https%3A%2F%2Fkey-idp.iam.harvard.edu%2Fidp%2FAuthn%2FExternal%3Fconversation%3De1s1%26entityId%3Dezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu%2Flts%2Fezproxyprod%2Fsp#36407.toc|url-status=live}}</ref> The light entering the camera is halved with each increasing increment.<ref name="Warren-Camera" />[[File:Daisies-Focus.jpg|thumb|right|The distance range in which objects appear clear and sharp, called ''[[depth of field]]'', can be adjusted by many cameras. This allows a photographer to control which objects appear in focus, and which do not.|alt=An image of flowers, with one in focus. The background is out of focus.]]

The wider opening at lower f-stops narrows the range of focus so the background is blurry while the foreground is in focus. This [[depth of field]] increases as the aperture closes. A narrow aperture results in a high depth of field, meaning that objects at many different distances from the camera will appear to be in focus.<ref name="Warren-35mm">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Camera: 35 mm|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of twentieth-century photography|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|date=2006|editor=Lynne Warren|isbn=978-1-57958-393-4}}</ref> What is acceptably in focus is determined by the [[circle of confusion]], the photographic technique, the equipment in use and the degree of magnification expected of the final image.<ref>{{cite book|title=The British Journal Photographic Almanac|date=1956|publisher=Henry Greenwood and Co. Ltd|pages= 468–471}}</ref>

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[[File: Sekonic L-358 Flash Master.jpg|thumb|A handheld digital light meter showing an exposure of 1/200th at an aperture of f/11, at ISO 100. The light sensor is on top, under the white diffusing hemisphere.]]

In most modern cameras, the amount of light entering the camera is measured using a built-in light meter or exposure meter.{{Efn|Some photographers use handheld [[exposure meter]]s independent of the camera and use the readings to manually set the exposure settings on the camera.<ref name="Britannica-Camera" />|name=|}} Taken through the lens (called ''{{Abbr|TTL|through the lens}} metering''), these readings are taken using a panel of light-sensitive [[semiconductor]]s.<ref name="How-Stuff-Works" /> They are used to calculate optimal exposure settings. These settings are typically determined automatically as the reading is used by the camera's [[microprocessor]]. The reading from the light meter is incorporated with aperture settings, exposure times, and film or sensor sensitivity to calculate the optimal exposure. {{Efn|Film canisters typically contain a DX code that can be read by modern cameras so that the camera's computer knows the sensitivity of the film, the ISO.<ref name="Warren-Camera" />]|name=|}}

[[Light meter]]s typically average the light in a scene to 18% middle gray. More advanced cameras are more nuanced in their metering—weighing the center of the frame more heavily (center-weighted metering), considering the differences in light across the image (matrix metering), or allowing the photographer to take a light reading at a specific point within the image (spot metering).<ref name="Warren-35mm" /><ref name="Philip's" /><ref name="Britannica-Camera">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=camera|encyclopedia=Britannica Academic|url=https://academic-eb-com.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/levels/collegiate/article/camera/18803|access-date=12 December 2019|url-access=subscription|archive-date=10 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110042914/https://www.pin1.harvard.edu/cas/login?service=https%3A%2F%2Fkey-idp.iam.harvard.edu%2Fidp%2FAuthn%2FExternal%3Fconversation%3De1s1%26entityId%3Dezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu%2Flts%2Fezproxyprod%2Fsp|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Columbia" />

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Viewfinders fall into two primary categories: optical and electronic. Optical viewfinders, commonly found in Single-Lens Reflex (SLR) cameras, use a system of mirrors or prisms to reflect light from the lens to the viewfinder, providing a clear, real-time view of the scene. Electronic viewfinders, typical in mirrorless cameras, project an electronic image onto a small display, offering a wider range of information such as live exposure previews and histograms, albeit at the cost of potential lag and higher battery consumption.<ref name="Columbia" /> Specialized viewfinder systems exist for specific applications, like [[Subminiature photography|subminiature cameras]] for spying or [[underwater photography]].<ref name="Focal" />

[[Stellar parallax|Parallax error]], resulting from misalignment between the viewfinder and lens axes, can cause inaccurate representations of the subject's position. While negligible with distant subjects, this error becomes prominent with closer ones. Some viewfinders incorporate parallax-compensating devices to mitigate ~~this~~that issue.<ref name="Britannica-Technology" />

=== Film and sensor ===

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In the single-lens reflex camera, the photographer sees the scene through the camera lens. This avoids the problem of [[parallax]] which occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens. Single-lens reflex cameras have been made in several formats including sheet film 5x7" and 4x5", roll film 220/120 taking 8,10, 12, or 16 photographs on a 120 roll, and twice that number of a 220 film. These correspond to 6x9, 6x7, 6x6, and 6x4.5 respectively (all dimensions in cm). Notable manufacturers of large format and roll film SLR cameras include [[Bronica]], [[Graflex]], [[Hasselblad]], [[Seagull Camera|Seagull]], [[Mamiya]] and [[Pentax]]. However, the most common format of SLR cameras has been 35 mm and subsequently the migration to [[digital SLR]] cameras, using almost identical sized bodies and sometimes using the same lens systems.

Almost all SLR cameras use a front-surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and [[pentaprism]] to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure, the mirror is flipped up out of the light path before the shutter opens. Some early cameras experimented with other methods of providing through-the-lens viewing, including the use of a semi-transparent [[Pellicle mirror|pellicle]] as in the [[Canon ~~(company)|Canon~~Pellix]] ~~''Pellix''~~<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/ |title=Canon Pellix Camera |work=Photography in Malaysia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016173448/http://www.mir.com.my/rb/photography/companies/canon/fdresources/pellix/ |archive-date=16 October 2013}}</ref> and others with a small periscope such as in the [[Corfield Periflex]] series.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historywebsite.co.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htm |title=Corfield Cameras – The Periflex Era |last=Parker |first=Bev |publisher=Wolverhampton Museum of Industry |access-date=22 October 2013 |archive-date=22 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022184328/http://www.historywebsite.co.uk/Museum/CorfieldCameras/page3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Large-format camera ===

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[[File:Voigtländer Bessa 66-1.JPG|thumb|left|Folding camera]]

The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the baseplate to be hinged so that it could be folded up, compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact and small models were dubbed ''vest pocket'' cameras. One of the smallest and best-selling cameras was the [[Vest Pocket Kodak]], sold in two generations between 1912 and 1934. Folding roll film cameras were preceded by folding plate cameras, more compact than other designs.

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A ciné camera or movie camera takes a rapid sequence of photographs on an image sensor or strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each called a ''frame'', through the use of an intermittent mechanism.

The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the ''frame rate'' (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's ~~eyes~~visual ~~and brain~~system [[persistence of vision|merge the separate pictures]] to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888 and by 1890 several types were being manufactured. The standard film size for ciné cameras was quickly established as [[35mm movie film|35mm film]] and this remained in use until the transition to digital cinematography. Other professional standard formats include [[70 mm film]] and 16 mm film whilst amateur filmmakers used 9.5 mm film, 8 mm film, or Standard 8 and Super 8 before the move into digital format.

The size and complexity of ciné cameras vary greatly depending on the uses required of the camera. Some professional equipment is very large and too heavy to be handheld whilst some amateur cameras were designed to be very small and light for single-handed operation.

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[[File:Disassembled_digital_camera.jpg|thumb|right|295x295px|Disassembled ~~Digital~~digital ~~Camera~~camera]]

{{see|Digital image|Digital imaging|Digital photography|Digital single-lens reflex camera|Digital video}}

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In 1986, Japanese company [[Nikon]] introduced an analog-recording electronic single-lens reflex camera, the Nikon SVC.<ref>[http://apphotnum.free.fr/N2BE2.html Nikon SLR-type digital cameras] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809172701/http://apphotnum.free.fr/N2BE2.html |date=9 August 2011 }}, Pierre Jarleton</ref>

The first [[full-frame digital SLR]] cameras were developed in Japan from around 2000 to 2002: the MZ-D by Pentax,<ref>[https://www.dpreview.com/opinion/4721880615/the-long-difficult-road-to-pentax-full-frame The long, difficult road to Pentax full-frame The long, difficult road to Pentax full-frame] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704073828/https://www.dpreview.com/opinion/4721880615/the-long-difficult-road-to-pentax-full-frame |date=4 July 2017 }}, [[Digital Photography Review]]</ref> the [[Contax N Digital|N Digital]] by [[Contax]]'s Japanese R6D team,<ref>''[[British Journal of Photography]]'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=uk9WAAAAMAAJ Issues 7410-7422], 2003, p. 2</ref> and the [[Canon EOS-1Ds|EOS-1Ds]] by [[Canon Inc.|Canon]].<ref>[https://www.dpreview.com/articles/7466980622/canoneos1ds Canon EOS-1Ds, 11 megapixel full-frame CMOS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126075558/https://www.dpreview.com/articles/7466980622/canoneos1ds |date=26 January 2021 }}, [[Digital Photography Review]]</ref> Gradually in the 2000s, the full-frame DSLR became the dominant camera type for professional photography.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

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* [[Camera matrix]]

* [[History of the camera]]

* [[Camera phone]]

* [[List of camera types]]

* [[List of digital camera brands]]

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[[Category:Cameras|~~Cameras~~ ]]

[[Category:Photography equipment]]

[[Category:Optical devices]]