Mehmed II: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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| caption = ''[[Portrait of Mehmet II (Bellini)|Portrait of Mehmet II]]'' by [[Gentile Bellini]],<br/>dating 1480

| title = [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Padishah]]<br>[[Sultan]]<br>[[List of people known as the Conqueror|Conqueror]]<br>[[Khan (title)|Khan]]<br>[[Khagan]]<br>[[List of caliphs|Caliph]]<br>[[Ottoman claim to Roman succession|Caesar of Rome]]<br>The Grand Turk<br>The Father of Conquest<br/>The sultan of two lands and the khan of two seas<ref>{{cite book|author=Cihan Yüksel Muslu|year=2014|title=The Ottomans and the Mamluks: Imperial Diplomacy and Warfare in the Islamic World|page=118|quote=Mehmed presented himself to the world as The Sultan of two lands and the Khan of two seas}}</ref>

| succession = [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan of the Ottoman Empire]] ([[Padishah]])

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'''Mehmed II''' ({{lang-ota|محمد ثانى|translit=Meḥmed-i s̱ānī}}; {{lang-tr|II. Mehmed}}, {{IPA-|tr|icinˈdʒi ˈmehmet|pron}}; 30 March 1432{{spnd}}3 May 1481), commonly known as '''Mehmed the Conqueror''' ({{lang-ota|ابو الفتح|Ebū'l-fetḥ|lit=the Father of Conquest|links=no}}; {{lang-tr|Fâtih Sultan Mehmed|links=no}}), was twice the [[sultan of the Ottoman Empire]] from August 1444 to September 1446 and then later from February 1451 to May 1481.

In Mehmed II's first reign, he defeated the crusade led by [[John Hunyadi]] after the Hungarian incursions into his country broke the conditions of the truce per the [[Peace of Szeged|Treaties of Edirne and Szeged]]. When Mehmed II ascended the throne again in 1451, he strengthened the [[Ottoman Navy]] and made preparations to attack Constantinople. At the age of 21, he [[Fall of Constantinople|conquered Constantinople]] and brought an end to the [[Byzantine Empire]]. After the conquest, Mehmed claimed the title [[Caesar (title)|caesar]] of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] ({{lang-ota|قیصر‎ روم|qayṣar-i Rūm|links=no}}), based on the fact that Constantinople had been the seat and capital of the surviving [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] since its consecration in 330 AD by [[Constantine the Great|Emperor Constantine I]].{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=85}} The claim was soon recognized by the [[Patriarchate of Constantinople]], albeit not by most European monarchs.

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== Early life and first reign ==

[[File:Hunername accession Mehmed II.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Accession of Mehmed II in [[Edirne]], 1451]]

Mehmed II was born on 30 March 1432, in [[Edirne]], then the capital city of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman state]]. His father was Sultan [[Murad II]] (1404–1451) and his mother [[Hüma Hatun]], a slave of uncertain origin.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Freely|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0D8MAQAAMAAJ&q=%22March+1432%22|title=The Grand Turk: Sultan Mehmet II -– Conqueror of Constantinople, Master of an Empire and Lord of Two Seas|date=2009|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-704-7|pages=9|language=en|access-date=8 May 2020|archive-date=12 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012041249/https://books.google.com/books?id=0D8MAQAAMAAJ&q=%22March+1432%22|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Babinger|first=Franz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC&pg=PA11|title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time|date=1978|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-01078-6|pagespage=11|language=en|access-date=8 May 2020|archive-date=12 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012041249/https://books.google.com/books?id=PPxC6rO7vvsC&pg=PA11|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=19}}

When Mehmed II was eleven years old he was sent to [[Amasya]] with his two ''lalas'' (advisors) to govern and thus gain experience, per the custom of Ottoman rulers before his time.{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=19}} Sultan Murad II also sent a number of teachers for him to study under. This Islamic education had a great impact in molding Mehmed's mindset and reinforcing his Muslim beliefs. He was influenced in his practice of Islamic [[Wiktionary:epistemology#Noun|epistemology]] by practitioners of science, particularly by his mentor, [[Molla GüraniGürâni]], and he followed their approach. The influence of [[Akshamsaddin]] in Mehmed's life became predominant from a young age, especially in the imperative of fulfilling his Islamic duty to overthrow the Byzantine Empire by conquering Constantinople.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}

After [[Murad II]] made peace with [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] on 12 June 1444,{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=91}} he abdicated the throne in favour of his 12-year-old son Mehmed II in July{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=9}}/August{{Sfn|Nicolle|2000|p=91}} 1444.

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[[File:Rumeli Castle.jpg|thumb|[[Roumeli Hissar Castle]], built by Sultan Mehmed II between 1451 and 1452, before the [[Fall of Constantinople]]<ref name="WDL">{{cite web|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/8836/|title=Bosphorus (i.e. Bosporus), View from Kuleli, Constantinople, Turkey|website=[[World Digital Library]]|date=1890–1900|access-date=12 December 2013|archive-date=20 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020201630/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/8836/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

When Mehmed II ascended the throne again in 1451, he devoted himself to strengthening the Ottoman navy and made preparations for an attack on Constantinople. In the narrow [[Bosphorus|Bosphorus Straits]], the fortress [[Anadoluhisarı]] had been built by his great-grandfather [[Bayezid I]] on the Asian side; Mehmed erected an even stronger fortress called [[Rumelihisarı]] on the European side, and thus gained complete control of the strait. Having completed his fortresses, Mehmed proceeded to levy a toll on ships passing within reach of their cannon. A [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] vessel ignoring signals to stop was sunk with a single shot and all the surviving sailors beheaded,<ref name="Silburn1912">Silburn, P. A. B. (1912).</ref> except for the captain, who was impaled and mounted aslike a human scarecrow as a warning to furtherother sailors on the strait.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03l2shc|title=Byzantium: A Tale of Three Cities|website=BBC Four|access-date=9 April 2017|archive-date=8 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308102211/http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03l2shc|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Abu Ayyub al-Ansari]], the companion and standard bearer of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, had died during the first [[Siege of Constantinople (674–678)]]. As Mehmed II's army approached Constantinople, Mehmed's sheikh [[Akshamsaddin]]{{sfn|Stavrides|2001|p=23}} discovered the tomb of Abu Ayyub al-Ansari. After the conquest, Mehmed built [[Eyüp Sultan Mosque]] at the site to emphasize the importance of the conquest to the Islamic world and highlight his role as [[Ghazi warriors|ghazi]].{{sfn|Stavrides|2001|p=23}}

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The owl sounds the relief in the castle of Afrasiyab.</poem>}}

Some Muslim scholars claimed that a [[hadith]] in [[Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal|Musnad Ahmad]] referred specifically to Mehmed's conquest of Constantinople, seeing it as the fulfillment of a prophecy and a sign of the approaching apocalypse.<ref>{{multiref2

*|{{ cite journal| last= Şahin,| first= K.,|date= 2010.| "title=Constantinople and the End Time: The Ottoman Conquest as a Portent of the Last Hour."| ''journal=Journal of Early Modern History'',| ''volume=14''(|issue=4), pp.|pages= 317–354| doi= 10.1163/157006510X512223|mode=cs2}}

*| Ahmad, Al-Musnad 14:331 #18859: "The Prophet ﷺ is reported to have said, 'Verily you shall conquer Constantinople. What a wonderful leader will her leader be, and what a wonderful army will that army be!'"}}</ref>

[[File:Zonaro GatesofConst.jpg|thumb|The entry of Sultan Mehmed II into [[Constantinople]], painting by [[Fausto Zonaro]] (1854–1929)]]

After the conquest of Constantinople, Mehmed claimed the title of [[Caesar (title)|caesar]] of the [[Roman Empire]] (''Qayser-i Rûm''), based on the assertion that Constantinople had been the seat and capital of the [[Roman Empire]] since 330 AD and whoever possessed the Imperial capital was the ruler of the empire.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2004/12/19/pazar/yazortay.html |title=Milliyet İnternet – Pazar |publisher=Milliyet.com.tr |date=19 December 2004 |access-date=9 April 2017 |archive-date=31 October 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031030657/http://www.milliyet.com.tr/2004/12/19/pazar/yazortay.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The contemporary scholar [[George of Trebizond]] supported his claim.<ref>{{cite webnews|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/constantinople.htm|title=washingtonpost.com: Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924|websitenewspaper=www.washingtonpost.comWashington Post|access-date=9 April 2017|archive-date=24 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724153239/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/chap1/constantinople.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftOp1cR7VK8C&q=%22The+seat+of+the+Roman+Empire+is+Constantinople.%22&pg=PT13|title=Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453|last=Crowley|first=Roger|year=2009|publisher=Faber & Faber|isbn=978-0571250790|language=en}}</ref> The claim was not recognized by the [[Catholic Church]] and most of, if not all, Western Europe, but was recognized by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]. Mehmed had installed [[Gennadius Scholarius]], a staunch antagonist of the West, as the [[ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople]] with all the ceremonial elements, ethnarch (or ''milletbashi'') status, and rights of property that made him the second largest landlord in the empire after the sultan himself in 1454, and in turn, Gennadius II recognized Mehmed the Conqueror as the successor to the throne.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=http://global.britannica.com/biography/Gennadios-II-Scholarios|title=Gennadios II Scholarios {{!}} patriarch of Constantinople|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=9 April 2017|language=en|archive-date=31 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031214404/https://global.britannica.com/biography/Gennadios-II-Scholarios|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.patriarchate.org/list-of-ecumenical-patriarchs?p_p_id=101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=normal&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=column-1&p_p_col_pos=1&p_p_col_count=2&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_delta=20&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_keywords=&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_advancedSearch=false&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_andOperator=true&p_r_p_564233524_resetCur=false&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_cur=6|title=List of Ecumenical Patriarchs – The Ecumenical Patriarchate|website=www.patriarchate.org|language=en-US|access-date=9 April 2017|archive-date=2 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702213524/https://www.patriarchate.org/list-of-ecumenical-patriarchs?p_p_id=101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc&p_p_lifecycle=0&p_p_state=normal&p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=column-1&p_p_col_pos=1&p_p_col_count=2&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_delta=20&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_keywords=&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_advancedSearch=false&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_andOperator=true&p_r_p_564233524_resetCur=false&_101_INSTANCE_u1pdiOuFkFSc_cur=6|url-status=live}}</ref>

Emperor [[Constantine XI Palaiologos]] died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen to the Ottomans, he likely would have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother. Those children were taken into the palace service of Mehmed after the fall of Constantinople. The oldest boy, renamed Has Murad, became a personal favorite of Mehmed and served as [[beylerbey]] of the [[Balkans]]. The younger son, renamed [[Mesih Pasha]], became admiral of the Ottoman fleet and [[sanjak-bey]] of the [[Sanjak of Gelibolu|Gallipoli]]. He eventually served twice as [[Grand Vizier]] under Mehmed's son, [[Bayezid II]].<ref>Lowry, Heath W. (2003). ''The Nature of the Early Ottoman State''. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 115–116.</ref>

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{{further|List of campaigns of Mehmed the Conqueror|Ottoman Serbia}}

[[File:Siegebelgrade.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman miniature]] of the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]], 1456]]

Mehmed II's first campaigns after Constantinople were in the direction of Serbia, which had been an Ottoman [[vassal state]] intermittently since the [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389. The Ottoman ruler had a connection with the [[Serbian Despotate]] – one of [[Murad II]]'s wives was [[Mara Branković]] – and he used that fact to claim Serbian lands. [[Đurađ Branković]]'s recently made alliance with the Hungarians, and his irregular payments of tribute, further served as justifications for the invasion. The Ottomans sent an ultimatum demanding the keys to some Serbian castles which formerly belonged to the Ottomans.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Uzunçarşılı |first=İsmail Hakkı |title=Osmanlı Tarihi Cilt II |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu |year=2019 |isbn=9789751600127 |pages=13–18 |language=tr |trans-title=History of the Ottomans Volume II}}</ref> When Serbia refused these demands, the Ottoman army led by Mehmed set out from [[Edirne]] towards Serbia in 1454, sometime after the 18th of April.<ref name=":4">Elizabeth A. Zachariadou, Romania and the Turks Pt. XIII p. 837-840, “First Serbian Campaigns of Mehemmed II (1454-1455)”</ref> Mehmed's forces quickly succeeded in capturing Sivricehisar (sometimes identified with the [[Ostrvica Fortress]]) and Omolhisar,<ref name=":5">Ibn Kemal, Tevarih-i Al-i Osman, VII. Defter, ed. Ş. Turan, 1957, pp. 109-118</ref> and [[Battle of Ostrvica|repulsed]] a Serbian cavalry force of 9,000 cavalry sent against them by the despot.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Jorga |first=Nicolae |title=Büyük Türk - Fatih Sultan Mehmed |publisher=Yeditepe Yayınevi |year=2018 |isbn=9786052070383 |pages=73–84 |language=tr}}</ref> Following these actions, the Serbian capital of [[Smederevo]] was put under siege by the Ottoman forces. Before the city could be taken, intelligence was received about an approaching Hungarian relief force led by Hunyadi, which caused Mehmed to lift the siege and start marching back to his domains.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Muresanu |first=Camil |title=John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom |publisher=Center for Romanian Studies |year=2018 |isbn=9781592111152 |pages=205 |language=en}}</ref> By August the campaign was effectively over,<ref name=":4" /> Mehmed left a part of his force under the command of Firuz Bey in Serbia in anticipation of a possible offensive on Ottoman territories by Hunyadi.<ref name=":3" /> This force was defeated by a combined Hungarian-Serbian army led by Hunyadi and [[Nikola Skobaljić]] on the 2nd of October near [[Battle of Kruševac|Kruševac]], after which Hunyadi went on to raid Ottoman controlled Nish and Pirot before returning back to Belgrade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Babinger |first=Franz |title=Fatih Sultan Mehmed ve Zamanı |publisher=Oğlak Yayıncılık |year=2003 |isbn=975-329-417-4 |pages=109 |language=tr |trans-title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Times}}</ref> Roughly a month later, on the 16th of November, the Ottomans avenged their earlier defeat at Kruševac by defeating Skobaljić's army near Tripolje, where the Serbian voivode was captured and executed via impalement.<ref name=":7" /> Following this a temporary treaty was signed with the Serbian despot, where Đurađ would formally recognize the recently captured Serbian forts as Ottoman land, send thirty thousand [[florin|florins]] to the [[Sublime Porte|Porte]] as yearly tribute and provide troops for Ottoman campaigns.<ref name=":3" /> The 1454 campaign had resulted in the capture of fifty thousand prisoners from Serbia, four thousand of whom were settled in various villages near [[Constantinople]].<ref name=":3" /> The following year, Mehmed received reports from one of his frontier commanders about Serbian weakness against a possible invasion, the reports in combination with the dissatisfactory results of the 1454 campaign convinced Mehmed to initiate another campaign against Serbia.<ref name=":3" /> The Ottoman army marched on the important mining town of [[Novo Brdo]], which Mehmed put under [[Siege of Novo Brdo (1455)|siege]]. The Serbians couldn't resist the Ottoman army out in the open, thus resorted to fortifying their various settlements and having their peasants flee to either various fortresses or forests.<ref name=":6" /> After forty days of siege and intense cannon fire, Novo Brdo surrendered.<ref name=":6" /> Following the conquest of the city, Mehmed captured various other Serbian settlements in the surrounding area,<ref name=":5" /> after which he started his march back towards Edirne, visiting his ancestor [[Murad I]]'s grave in Kosovo on the way.<ref name=":4" />

Mehmed II's first campaigns after Constantinople were in the direction of Serbia, which had been an Ottoman [[vassal state]] since the [[Battle of Kosovo]] in 1389. The Ottoman ruler had a connection with the [[Serbian Despotate]] – one of [[Murad II]]'s wives was [[Mara Branković]] – and he used that fact to claim some Serbian islands. That [[Đurađ Branković]] had recently made an alliance with the Hungarians, and had paid the tribute irregularly, may have been important considerations. When Serbia refused these demands, the Ottoman army set out from [[Edirne]] towards Serbia in 1454. [[Smederevo]] was besieged, as was [[Novo Brdo]], the most important Serbian metal mining and smelting center. Ottomans and Hungarians fought during the years till 1456.

In 1456, Mehmed decided to continue his momentum towards the northwest and capture the city of [[Belgrade]], which had been ceded to the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] by the Serbian despot [[Đurađ Branković]] in 1427. Significant preparations were made by the Sultan for the conquest of the city, including the casting of 22 large cannons alongside many smaller ones and the establishment of a navy which would sail up the [[Danube]] to aid the army during the siege.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Türkmen |first=İlhan |date=5 January 2015 |title=The Campaigns Against Serbia During the Reign of Mehmed the Conqueror per Ottoman Chronicles |trans-title= |journal=Asia Minor Studies - International Journal of Social Sciences |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=115–132 |via=Dergipark}}</ref> The exact number of troops Mehmed commanded varies between sources,<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Babinger |first=Franz |title=Fatih Sultan Mehmed ve Zamanı |publisher=Oğlak Yayıncılık |year=2003 |isbn=975-329-417-4 |pages=132–137 |language=tr |trans-title=Mehmed the Conqueror and His Times}}</ref> but the rumours of its size were significant enough to cause panic in Italy.<ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Setton |first=Kenneth M. |title=A History of the Crusades Volume VI |publisher=University of Wisconsin Press |year=1989 |isbn=0-299-10740-X |pages=323-325 |language=en}}</ref> On the 13th of June the Ottoman army reached Belgrade.<ref name=":8" /> After the necessary preparations were finished, Ottoman cannons started bombarding the city walls and Ottoman troops started filling the ditches in front the walls with earth to advance forward.<ref name=":8" /> As despair started to set in amongst the defenders, news started arriving of a relief force assembling across the Danube under the command of John Hunyadi.<ref name=":8" /> Upon learning of this development, Mehmed held a war council with his commanders to determine the army's next actions.<ref name=":8" /> [[Karaca Pasha]] recommended that a part of the army should cross the Danube to counter the approaching relief army.<ref name=":11">{{Cite book |last=Tansel |first=Selahattin |title=Osmanlı Kaynaklarına Göre Fatih Sultan Mehmed'in Siyasi ve Askeri Faaliyeti |publisher=Türk Tarih Kurumu |year=1953 |isbn=9789751610812 |pages=122–123 |language=tr |trans-title=Mehmed the Conqueror's Political and Military Activity per Ottoman Sources}}</ref> This plan was rejected by the council, particularly due to the opposition by the Rumelian Begs.<ref name=":8" /> Instead, the decision was made to prioritize capturing the fortress, a move seen as a tactical blunder by modern historians.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":8" /> This allowed Hunyadi to set up camp with his army across the Danube uncontested.<ref name=":11" /> Shortly after, the Ottoman navy was defeated in a five hour long battle by the newly arrived Christian Danubian navy.<ref name=":11" /> Following this, Hunyadi's troops started entering the city to reinforce the besieged, which increased the morale of the defending forces.<ref name=":9" /> Infuriated by the unfolding events, Mehmed ordered a final attack to capture the city on the 21st of July, after continuous cannon fire building up to the day of the attack.<ref name=":9" /> Ottoman troops were initially successful in breaching the defences and entering the city, however were eventually repulsed by the defenders.<ref name=":10" /> The Christians pressed their advantage by launching a counter attack, which started pushing back the Ottoman forces,<ref name=":8" /> managing to advance as far as the Ottoman camp.<ref name=":3" /> At this crucial point of the battle, one of the viziers advised Mehmed to abandon the camp for his safety, which he refused to do so on the grounds that it would be a “sign of cowardice”.<ref name=":3" /> After this, Mehmed personally joined the fighting, accompanied by two of his [[Bey|begs]].<ref name=":8" /> The Sultan managed to personally kill three<ref name=":3" /> enemy soldiers before being injured, forcing him to abandon the battlefield.<ref name=":9" /> The news of their Sultan fighting alongside them and the arrival of reinforcements caused a morale boost amongst the Ottoman troops, which allowed them to go on the offensive again and push the Christian forces out of the Ottoman camp.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mureşanu |first=Camil |title=John Hunyadi: Defender of Christendom |publisher=Histria Books |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-59211-115-2 |pages=221-224 |language=en |quote=The janissaries, however, were still fighting vigorously. Mehmed II, although wounded by an arrow in his calf, stayed among them... Mehmed repelled the troops that had penetrated into his camp}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> The actions of the Sultan had prevented a complete rout of the Ottoman army,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mixson |first=James D. |title=The Crusade of 1456: Texts and Documentation in Translation |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-4875-3262-8 |pages=26 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" /><ref name=":8" /> however, the army had been far too weakened to attempt to take the city again, causing the Ottoman war council to decide on ending the siege.<ref name=":8" /> The Sultan and his army began a retreat to Edirne during the night, without the Christian forces being able to pursue them.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jorga |first=Nicolae |title=Büyük Türk - Fatih Sultan Mehmed |publisher=Yeditepe Yayınevi |year=2018 |isbn=9786052070383 |pages=93–97 |language=tr}}</ref> Hunyadi died shortly after the siege, meanwhile [[Đurađ Branković]] regained possession of some parts of Serbia.

The Ottoman army advanced as far as [[Belgrade]], where it attempted but failed to conquer the city from [[John Hunyadi]] at the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|Siege of Belgrade]], on 14 July 1456. A period of relative peace ensued in the region until the [[Siege of Belgrade 1521|Fall of Belgrade]] in 1521, during the reign of Mehmed's great-grandson, known as Sultan [[Suleiman the Magnificent]]. The sultan retreated to Edirne, and [[Đurađ Branković]] regained possession of some parts of Serbia. Before the end of the year, however, the 79-year-old Branković died. Serbian independence survived him for only two years, when the Ottoman Empire formally annexed his lands following dissension among his widow and three remaining sons. Lazar, the youngest, poisoned his mother and exiled his brothers, but he died soon afterwards. In the continuing turmoil the oldest brother [[Stefan Branković]] gained the throne but was ousted in March 1459. After that the Serbian throne was offered to [[Stephen Tomašević]], the future king of Bosnia, which infuriated Sultan Mehmed. He sent his army, which captured [[Smederevo]] in June 1459, ending the existence of the [[Serbian Despotate]].<ref name=Miller1>{{cite book |title=The Balkans: Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro |last=Miller |first=William |year=1896 |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |location=London |isbn=978-0836999655 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J98DAAAAYAAJ |access-date=8 February 2011 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429210022/https://books.google.com/books?id=J98DAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Shortly before the end of the year 1456, roughly 5 months after the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|siege of Belgrade]], the 79-year-old Branković died. Serbian independence survived after him for only around three years, when the Ottoman Empire formally annexed Serbian lands following dissension among his widow and three remaining sons. Lazar, the youngest, poisoned his mother and exiled his brothers, but he died soon afterwards. In the continuing turmoil the oldest brother [[Stefan Branković]] gained the throne. Observing the chaotic situation in Serbia, the Ottoman government decided to definitively conclude the Serbian issue.{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} The Grand Vizier [[Mahmud Pasha Angelović|Mahmud Pasha]] was dispatched with an army to the region in 1458, where he initially conquered [[Resava (river)#Region|Resava]] and a number of other settlements before moving towards Smederevo.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} After a battle outside the city walls, the defenders were forced to retreat inside the fortress.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} In the ensuing siege, the outer walls were breached by Ottoman forces, however the Serbians continued to resist inside the inner walls of the fortress.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} Not wanting to waste time capturing the inner citadel, Mahmud lifted the siege diverted his army elsewhere, conquering [[Rudnik (mountain)|Rudnik]] and its environs before attacking and capturing the fortress of Golubac.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=130}} Subsequently, Mehmed who had returned from his campaign in Morea met up with Mahmud Pasha in [[Skopje]].<ref name=":10" />{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} During this meeting, reports were received that a Hungarian army was assembling near the Danube to launch an offensive against the Ottoman positions in the region.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} The Hungarians crossed the Danube near Belgrade, after which they marched south towards [[Užice]].{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} While the Hungarian troops were engaged in plunder near Užice, they got [[Battle of Užice|ambushed]] by the Ottoman forces in the region, forcing them to retreat.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aşıkpaşazade |first=Ahmed |title=Osmanoğulları'nın Tarihi |publisher=K Kitaplığı |year=2003 |isbn=975-296-043-X |editor-last=Yavuz |editor-first=Kemal |pages=228-229 |language=tr |trans-title=Aşıkpaşazade's History of the Ottomans}}</ref><ref name=":10" />{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} Despite this victory, for Serbia to be fully annexed into the empire, Smederevo still had to be taken.{{sfn|Tansel|1953|p=131}} The opportunity for its capture presented itself the following year. [[Stefan Branković]] was ousted from power in March 1459. After that the Serbian throne was offered to [[Stephen Tomašević]], the future king of Bosnia, which infuriated Sultan Mehmed. After Mahmud Pasha suppressed an uprising near [[Prizren|Pizren]],{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} Mehmed personally led an army against the Serbian capital,<ref name=":10" /> capturing [[Smederevo]] on the 20th of June 1459.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SEMENDİRE |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/semendire |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |language=tr}}</ref> After the surrender of the capital, other Serbian castles which continued to resist were captured in the following months,{{sfn|Uzunçarşılı|2019|p=20}} ending the existence of the [[Serbian Despotate]].<ref name="Miller1">{{cite book |title=The Balkans: Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, and Montenegro |last=Miller |first=William |year=1896 |publisher=G.P. Putnam's Sons |location=London |isbn=978-0836999655 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J98DAAAAYAAJ |access-date=8 February 2011 |archive-date=29 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429210022/https://books.google.com/books?id=J98DAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Conquest of the Morea (1458–1460) ===

Line 277 ⟶ 279:

=== Consorts ===

Mehmed II was the last sultan to legally marry until 1533/1534, when [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] married his favorite concubine [[Hurrem Sultan|Hürrem Sultan]].

Mehmed II's eight known consorts are:<ref>Necdet Sakaoğlu (2008). Bu mülkün kadın sultanları: Vâlide sultanlar, hâtunlar, hasekiler, kadınefendiler, sultanefendiler. Oğlak publications. pp. 110–112. {{ISBN|978-9-753-29623-6}}</ref>

Line 285 ⟶ 287:

*[[Çiçek Hatun]]. Mother of Şehzade Cem.

*[[Anna Komnenos (daughter of David of Trebizond)|Anna Hatun]]. Daughter of the Greek emperor of [[Trabzon|Trebizond]] [[David of Trebizond|David II Komnenos]] and his wife [[Helena Kantakouzene, Empress of Trebizond|Helena Kantakuzenos]]. The marriage was initially proposed by her father, but Mehmed refused. However, after the [[Trebizond Campaign|conquest of Trebizond]] in 1461, Anna entered Mehmed's harem as a "noble tribute" or guest and stayed there for two years, after which Mehmed married her to [[Zagan Pasha|Zaganos Mehmed Pasha]]. In exchange, Mehmed had the Zaganos's daughter as his consort.

*[[Helena Palaiologina (daughter of Demetrios)|Helena Hatun]] (1442 - 14691442–1469). Daughter of the despot of [[Morea]] [[Demetrios Palaiologos]], Mehmed asked her for himself after the Morea campaign, having heard of her beauty. However, the union was never consummated because Mehmed feared that she might poison him.

*Maria Hatun. Born [[Maria Gattilusio]], she was widow of [[Alexander of Trebizond|Alexander Komnenos Asen]], (brother of Anna Hatun's father. Byand by him she had a son, [[Alexios V of Trebizond|Alexios]], executed by Mehmed II). She was judicated as the most beautiful woman of her age and entered in the harem after her capture in 1462.<ref name="auto1">Babinger 1992, p. 230</ref>

*Hatice Hatun. Daughter of [[Zagan Pasha|Zaganos Mehmed Pasha]] by his first wife Sitti Nefise Hatun. She entered the harem in 1463. In return, her father was able to marry Anna Hatun, Mehmed's consort or "noble guest". After Mehmed's death she remarried with a statesman.<ref name="auto1"/>

===Sons===

Mehmed II had at least four sons:<ref>Uluçay 2011, ppp. 39, 42</ref><ref name="auto">Alderson, ''The structure of the Ottoman Dynasty'' {{page?|date=August 2024}}</ref>

*[[Bayezid II]] (3 December 1447 -– 10 June 1512) -– son of Gülbahar Hatun. He succeeded his father as the Ottoman Sultan.

*[[Şehzade Mustafa (son of Mehmed II)|Şehzade Mustafa]] (1450, Manisa -– 25 December 1474, Konya) -– son of Gülşah Hatun. Governor of Konya until his death. He was the favorite son of his father.

*[[Cem Sultan|Şehzade Cem]] (22 December 1459, Constantinople -– 25 February 1495; [[Capua]], [[Kingdom of Naples]], Italy) -– son of Çiçek Hatun. Governor of Konya after the death of his brother Mustafa, he fought for the throne against his half-brother Bayezid. He died in exile.

*Şehzade Nureddin. Probably died as an infant.

===Daughters===

Mehmed II had at least four daughters:<ref>Leslie P. Peirce (1993). ''The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire''. Oxford University Press. pp. 303-4303–304 n. 51. {{ISBN|978-0-195-08677-5}}.</ref><ref name="auto"/>

*[[Gevherhan Hatun (daughter of Mehmed the Conqueror)|Gevherhan Hatun]] (1446 -– Constantinople, 1514) -– daughter of Gülbahar Hatun. She was the mother of [[Ahmad Beg|Sultan Ahmad Beg]].

*Ayşe Hatun.

*Kamerhan Hatun. She married her cousin Hasan Bey, son of [[Candar dynasty|Candaroğlu]] Kemaleddin İsmail Bey and Hatice Hatun, full-sister of Mehmed II. They had a daughter, Hanzade Hatun.