Academy: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{Short description|Institution of higher learning}}

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{{About|learned society organizations and educational or academic institutions}}

{{About||other uses|Academy (disambiguation)}}

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{{More citations needed|date=October 2022}}

[[File:Archiginnasio-bologna02.png|thumb|[[Bologna University]], [[Italy]], established in AD 1088, is the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|world's oldest academic institution in continuous operation]].]]▼

An '''academy''' ([[Attic Greek]]: Ἀκαδήμεια; [[Koine Greek]] Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of [[secondary education|secondary]] or [[tertiary education|tertiary]] [[higher education|higher learning]] (and generally also [[research]] or honorary membership). The name traces back to [[Plato]]'s school of [[philosophy]], founded approximately 385 BC at [[Akademia]], a [[sanctuary]] of [[Athena]], the goddess of [[wisdom]] and [[Skills|skill]], north of [[Ancient Athens|Athens]], Greece.▼

▲An '''academy''' ([[Attic Greek]]: Ἀκαδήμεια; [[Koine Greek]] Ἀκαδημία) is an institution of [[secondary education|secondary]] or [[tertiary education|tertiary]] [[higher education|higher learning]] (and generally also [[research]] or honorary membership). The name traces back to [[Plato]]'s school of [[philosophy]], founded approximately 385386 BC at [[Akademia]], a [[sanctuary]] of [[Athena]], the goddess of [[wisdom]] and [[Skills|skill]], north of [[Ancient Athens|Athens]], Greece.

[[File:"The School of Athens" by Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino.jpg|thumb|A [[fresco]] that depicts a congregation of philosophers, mathematicians, and scientists from [[Ancient Greece]], including [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Pythagoras]], [[Archimedes]], and [[Heraclitus]]]]▼

The [[Royal Spanish Academy]] defines academy as scientific, literary or artistic society established with public authority and as a teaching establishment, public or private, of a professional, artistic, technical or simply practical nature.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Academy |url=https://dle.rae.es/academia |website=Rae |language=Spanish}}</ref>

== Etymology ==

[[File:MANNapoli 124545 plato's academy mosaic.jpg|thumb|[[Plato's Academy mosaic]] from [[Pompeii]]]]

The word comes from the ''Academy'' in [[ancient Greece]], which derives from the [[Athenian]] [[hero]], ''[[Akademos]]''. Outside the city walls of [[Athens]], the [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] was made famous by [[Plato]] as a center of learning. The sacred space, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom, [[Athena]], had formerly been an [[olive]] [[Grove (nature)|grove]], hence the expression "the groves of Academe".<ref>{{cite OED|academe}}</ref>

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==Origins==

===Original Academy===

[[File:Raffael 058.jpg|thumb|''[[The School of Athens]]'', fresco by [[Raphael]] (1509–1510), of an idealized academy]]

{{main|Platonic Academy}}

▲[[File:"The School of Athens" by Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino.jpg|thumb|A ''[[The School of Athens]]'', fresco by [[Raphael]] (1509–1510), that depicts a congregation of philosophers, mathematicians, and scientists from [[Ancient Greece]], including [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Pythagoras]], [[Archimedes]], and [[Heraclitus]]]]

Before ''Akademia'' was a school, and even before [[Cimon]] enclosed its precincts with a wall,<ref>[[Plutarch]] ''Life of Cimon'' 13.8</ref> it contained a sacred grove of olive trees dedicated to [[Athena]], the goddess of [[wisdom]], outside the city walls of ancient [[Athens]].<ref>[[Thucydides]] ii:34</ref> The archaic name for the site was ''Hekademia'', which by classical times evolved into ''Akademia'' and was explained, at least as early as the beginning of the 6th century BC, by linking it to an Athenian [[Greek hero cult|hero]], a legendary "[[Akademos]]". The site of ''Akademia'' was sacred to [[Athena]] and other immortals.

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{{Further|End of Hellenic Religion}}

After a lapse during the early Roman occupation, ''Akademia'' was refounded<ref>{{cite journal|first = Alan|last = Cameron|jstor = 44696832|title = The last days of the Academy at Athens|journal = Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society| volume = 195 (n.s. 15)|date = 1969| issue=15 (195) |pages = 7–29| doi=10.1017/S1750270500030207 | s2cid=163730386 }}</ref> as a new institution of some outstanding Platonists of late antiquity who called themselves "successors" (''[[diadochus (disambiguation)Diadochi|diadochoi]]'', but of Plato) and presented themselves as an uninterrupted tradition reaching back to Plato. However, there cannot have actually been any geographical, institutional, economic or [[personal continuity]] with the original Academy in the new organizational entity.<ref name="bechtle">[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2000/2000-04-19.html Gerald Bechtle, Bryn Mawr Classical Review of Rainer Thiel, ''Simplikios und das Ende der neuplatonischen Schule in Athen''. Stuttgart, 1999] {{webarchive|url= http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20050313013529/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2000/2000-04-19.html |date=2005-03-13 }} (in English).</ref>

The last "Greek" philosophers of the revived ''Akademia'' in the 6th century were drawn from various parts of the [[Hellenistic]] cultural world and suggest the broad [[syncretism]] of the common culture (see ''[[koine]]''): Five of the seven ''Akademia'' philosophers mentioned by Agathias were [[Syriac Christians|Syriac]] in their cultural origin: Hermias and Diogenes (both from Phoenicia), Isidorus of Gaza, [[Damascius]] of Syria, [[Iamblichus]] of Coele-Syria and perhaps even [[Simplicius of Cilicia]].<ref name="bechtle"/>

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====China====

In China a higher education institution [[Shang Xiang]] was founded by [[Shun (Chinese leader)|Shun]] in the [[Emperor Shun|Youyu]] era before the 21st century BC. The Imperial Central Academy at [[Nanjing]], founded in 258, was a result of the evolution of Shang Xiang and it became the first comprehensive institution combining education and research and was divided into five faculties in 470, which later became [[Nanjing University]].

In the 8th century another kind of institution of learning emerged, named [[Shuyuan]], which were generally privately owned. There were thousands of Shuyuan recorded in ancient times. The degrees from them varied from one to another and those advanced Shuyuan such as [[Bailudong Shuyuan]] and [[Yuelu Shuyuan]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Introduction of Hunan University|url=http://www-en.hnu.edu.cn/About_HNU/Introduction.htm|website=Hunan University}}</ref> (later become [[Hunan University]]) can be classified as higher institutions of learning.

====South AsiaIndia====

[[Taxila (modern)|Taxila]] or [[Taxila (ancient)|Takshashila]], in ancient [[Hindustan|India]], modern-day Pakistan, was an early centre of learning, near present-day [[Islamabad]] in the city of [[Taxila (modern)|Taxila]]. It is considered one of the ancient universities of the world. According to scattered references which were only fixed a millennium later it may have dated back to at least the 5th century BC.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002): ''Education in Ancient India'', Brill Academic Publishers, {{ISBN|90-04-12556-6}}, p. 141: {{blockquote|We have to be extremely cautious in dealing with the literary evidence, because much of the information offered in the secondary literature on Taxila is derived from the Jataka prose that was only fixed in Ceylon several hundred years after the events that it purports to describe, probably some time after Buddhaghosa, i.e. around A.D. 500.}}</ref> Some scholars date Takshashila's existence back to the 6th century BC.<ref name="Britannica Education">"History of Education", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2007.</ref> The school consisted of several monasteries without large dormitories or lecture halls where the religious instruction was most likely still provided on an individualistic basis.<ref>Hartmut Scharfe (2002): ''Education in Ancient India'', Brill Academic Publishers, {{ISBN|90-04-12556-6}}, p. 141</ref> Takshashila is described in some detail in later [[Jataka tales|Jātaka]] tales, written in Sri Lanka around the 5th century AD.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Marshall | first = John | author-link = John Marshall (archaeologist) | title = Taxila: Volume I | orig-year = 1951 | year = 1975 | publisher = [[Motilal Banarsidass]] | location = Delhi | page = 81}}</ref>

It became a noted centre of learning at least several centuries BC, and continued to attract students until the destruction of the city in the 5th century AD. Takshashila is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya. The famous [[treatise]] [[Arthashastra]] ([[Sanskrit]] for The knowledge of [[Economics]]) by Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself. Chanakya (or Kautilya),<ref>[http://britannica.com/eb/article-9044882 Kautilya]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110120535/http://britannica.com/eb/article-9044882 |date=2008-01-10 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> the [[Maurya Empire|Maurya]] Emperor [[Chandragupta Maurya|Chandragupta]]<ref>Radhakumud Mookerji (1941; 1960; reprint 1989). ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times'' (p. 17). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. {{ISBN|81-208-0405-8}}.</ref> and the [[Ayurvedic]] healer [[Charaka]] studied at Taxila.<ref name=Mookerji>Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989). ''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist'' (ppp. 478-489478–489). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. {{ISBN|81-208-0423-6}}.</ref>

Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of sixteen. The [[Vedas]] and the [[Eighteen Arts]], which included skills such as [[archery]], [[hunting]], and [[elephant]] lore, were taught, in addition to its [[law school]], [[medical school]], and school of [[military science]].<ref name=Mookerji/>

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====Islamic world====

{{Main|Islamic Golden Age#Education}}

Founded in [[Fes]], [[University of Al-Karaouine]] in the 9th century and in [[Cairo]], [[Al-Azhar University]] in the 10th century, and in Mali, the [[University of Timbuktu]] in about 1100. [[Mustansiriya Madrasah]] in [[Baghdad]], Iraq was established in 1227 as a [[madrasah]] by the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Caliph]] [[Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)|al-Mustansir]]. Its library had an initial collection of 80,000 volumes, given by the Caliph. The collection was said to have grown to 400,000 volumes.

===Medieval Europe===

{{Main|Medieval university}}

[[File:ChiostroPietroMartireNapoli.jpg|thumb|Established in 1224 by [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]], [[University of Naples Federico II]] in Italy is the world's oldest state-funded academic institution in continuous operation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Storia d'Italia |date=7 August 1981 |publisher=UTET |isbn=88-02-03568-7 |volume=4 |location=Torino |page=122}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Fulvio|last=Delle Donne|title=Storia dello Studium di Napoli in età sveva|publisher=Mario Adda Editore|year=2010|language=it|isbn=978-8880828419|pages=9–10}}</ref>]]

▲[[File:Archiginnasio-bologna02.png|thumb|[[Bologna University]], [[Italy]], established in AD 1088, is the [[List of oldest universities in continuous operation|world's oldest academic institution in continuous operation]].]]

In Europe, the academy dates to the ancient Greeks and Romans in the pre-Christian era. Newer universities were founded in the 12th and 13th centuries, and the European institution of academia took shape. Monks and priests moved out of monasteries to [[cathedral|cathedral cities]] and other towns where they opened the first schools dedicated to advanced study.

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In Rome, after unity was restored following the [[Western Schism]], humanist circles, cultivating philosophy and searching out and sharing ancient texts tended to gather where there was access to a library. The [[Vatican Library]] was not coordinated until 1475 and was never catalogued or widely accessible: not all popes looked with satisfaction at gatherings of unsupervised intellectuals. At the head of this movement for renewal in Rome was [[Cardinal Bessarion]], whose house from the mid-century was the centre of a flourishing academy of Neoplatonic philosophy and a varied intellectual culture. His valuable Greek as well as Latin library (eventually bequeathed to the city of [[Venice]] after he withdrew from Rome) was at the disposal of the academicians. Bessarion, in the latter years of his life, retired from Rome to [[Ravenna]], but he left behind him ardent adherents of the classic philosophy.

The next generation of humanists were bolder admirers of pagan culture, especially in the highly personal academy of [[Julius Pomponius Laetus|Pomponius Leto]], the natural son of a nobleman of the [[House of Sanseverino|Sanseverino]] family, born in [[Calabria]] but known by his academic name, who devoted his energies to the enthusiastic study of classical antiquity, and attracted a great number of disciples and admirers. He was a worshipper not merely of the literary and artistic form, but also of the ideas and spirit of classic paganism, which made him appear a condemner of [[Christianity]] and an enemy of the Church. In his academy every member assumed a classical name. Its principal members were humanists, like Bessarion's protégé [[Giovanni Antonio Campani]] (Campanus), [[Bartolomeo Platina]], the papal librarian, and [[Filippo Buonaccorsi]], and young visitors who received polish in the academic circle, like [[Publio Fausto Andrelini]] of Bologna who took the [[New Learning]] to the [[University of Paris]], to the discomfiture of his friend [[Erasmus]]. In their self-confidence, these first intellectual [[Neopaganism|neopagans]] compromised themselves politically, at a time when Rome was full of conspiracies fomented by the Roman barons and the neighbouring princes: [[Pope Paul II|Paul II]] (1464–71) caused [[Julius Pomponius Laetus|Pomponio]] and the leaders of the academy to be arrested on charges of irreligion, immorality, and conspiracy against the [[Pope]]. The prisoners begged so earnestly for mercy, and with such protestations of repentance, that they were pardoned. The Letonian academy, however, collapsed.<ref>[[Ludwig Pastor]], ''History of the Popes, ii, 2, gives an unsympathetic account.</ref>

In Naples, the ''[[Quattrocento]]'' academy founded by [[Alfonso V of Aragon|Alfonso of Aragon]] and guided by [[Antonio Beccadelli (poet)|Antonio Beccadelli]] was the ''Porticus Antoniana'', later known as the ''[[Accademia Pontaniana]]'', after [[Giovanni Pontano]].

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===Linguistic academies===

{{main|List of language regulators}}

The [[Accademia degli Infiammati]] of [[Padova]] and the Accademia degli Umidi, soon renamed the [[Accademia Fiorentina]], of [[Florence]] were both founded in 1540, and were both initially concerned with the proper basis for literary use of the ''volgare'', or [[vernacular language]] of Italy, which would later become the [[Italian language]]. In 1582 five Florentine literati gathered and founded the {{Lang|it|[[Accademia della Crusca]]|italic=no}} to demonstrate and conserve the beauty of the Florentine vernacular tongue, modelled upon the authors of the Trecento. The main instrument to do so was the ''[[Vocabolario degli Accademici della Crusca]]''. The Crusca long remained a private institution, criticizing and opposing the official Accademia Fiorentina.

The first institution inspired by the Crusca was the [[Fruitbearing Society]] for German language, which existed from 1617 to 1680.

The Crusca inspired [[Cardinal Richelieu|Richelieu]] to found in 1634 the analogous {{lang|fr|[[Académie française]]|italic=no}} with the task of acting as an official authority on the [[French language]], charged with publishing the official dictionary of that language. The following year the Académie received letters patent from the king Louis XIII as the only recognized academy for French language.

In its turn the state established Académie was the model for the {{lang|es|[[Real Academia Española]]}} (founded in 1713) and the [[Swedish Academy]] (1786), which are the ruling bodies of their respective languages and editors of major dictionaries. It also was the model for the [[Russian Academy]], founded in 1783, which afterwards merged into the Russian Academy of Sciences.

===Academies of sciences===

{{main|Academy of Sciencessciences}}

After the short-lived [[Academia Secretorum Naturae]] of Naples, the first academy exclusively devoted to sciences was the [[Accademia dei Lincei]] founded in 1603 in Rome, particularly focused on natural sciences.

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==Modern use of the term ''academy''==

[[File:Athens academy.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The modern [[Academy of Athens (modern)|Academy of Athens]], next to the [[University of Athens]] and the National Library forming 'the Trilogy', designed by [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel|Schinkel's]] Danish pupil [[Theophil Freiherr von Hansen|Theofil Hansen]], 1885, in [[Ionic order|Greek Ionic]], academically correct even to the polychrome sculpture]]

[[File:Univesidad Åbo Akademi.jpg|thumb|[[Åbo Akademi]], an academy building designed by [[Charles Bassi]], was built on 1833 in [[Turku]], [[Finland]].]]

The term is used widely today to refer to anything from schools to [[Learned society|learned societies]] to [[Funding agency|funding agencies]] to private industry associations.

[[National academies]] are bodies for scientists, artists or writers that are usually state-funded and often are given the role of controlling much of the state funding for research into their areas, or other forms of funding. Some use different terms in their name – the British [[Royal Society]] for example. The membership typically comprises distinguished individuals in the relevant field, who may be elected by the other members, or appointed by the government. They are essentially not schools or colleges, though some may operate teaching arms. The {{lang|fr|[[Académie Française]]|italic=no}} was the most influential pattern for these. Finland even has two separate "academies": [[Academy of Finland]] is a government-run funding agency, Suomalainen tiedeakatemia is a learned society.

The [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]], which presents the annual [[Academy Awards]], is an example of a purely industry body using the name. College-type specialized academies include the [[Royal Academy of Music]] of the United Kingdom; the [[United States Military Academy]] at [[West Point, New York|West Point]], New York; the [[United States Naval Academy]]; [[United States Air Force Academy]]; and the [[Australian Defence Force Academy]]. In emulation of the military academies, police in the United States are trained in [[Police academy|police academies]].

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The Queen's Speech, which followed the [[2010 United Kingdom general election|2010 general election]], included proposals for a bill to allow the Secretary of State for Education to approve schools, both Primary and Secondary, that have been graded "outstanding" by [[Ofsted]], to become academies. This was to be through a simplified streamlined process not requiring sponsors to provide capital funding.<ref>{{cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Academies Act 2010|url=http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2010-11/academieshl.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217031235/http://services.parliament.uk/bills/2010-11/academieshl.html|archive-date=17 December 2014|access-date=17 December 2014|website=}}</ref>

In 2012, the UK government began forcing some schools which had been graded satisfactory or lower into becoming academies, unilaterally removing existing governing bodies and head teachers in some cases. An example was Downhills Primary School in Haringey, where the head teacher refused to turn the school into an academy. OFSTED were called in to assess the school, failed it, and both the head and the governing body were removed and replaced with a Government-appointed board despite opposition from the school and parents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-17385311|title=BBC News – Academy row school governors sacked by Michael Gove|newspaper=BBC News|date=15 March 2012|access-date=17 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813033727/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/education-17385311|archive-date=13 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.haringeyindependent.co.uk/news/9592486.Protesting_parents__disgusted__with_Downhills_governors__removal/|title=Protesting parents 'disgusted' with Downhills governors' removal|author=David Hardiman|work=Haringey Independent|date=15 March 2012 |access-date=17 December 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723074454/http://www.haringeyindependent.co.uk/news/9592486.Protesting_parents__disgusted__with_Downhills_governors__removal/|archive-date=23 July 2013}}</ref>

===United States===

{{See also|Secondary education in the United States|History of higher education in the United States}}

Prior to the twentieth century, education was not as carefully structured in the United States as it is in the twenty-first. There was not a rigid division between high school and colleges. InThe manytypical casescollege at first included a preparatory unit, educationalwhich recordsit weredropped notby kept1900.<ref>J. norM. diplomasOpal. issued“Exciting Emulation: Academies and the Transformation of the Rural North, 1780s-1820s.” ''Journal of American History'' 91#2 (2004), pp. 445–70. [https://doi.org/10.2307/3660707 online]</ref>

"Academia", in the United States, is an abstract term referring to post-secondary education, especially the most elite or liberal arts part of it. However, inIn the nineteenth century an academy, a much more common word in English, was what later became known as a high school; in most places in the U.S. there were no public schools above the primary level. Some older high schools, such as [[Corning Free Academy]], retained the term in their names (Corning Free Academy, demoted to a [[middle school]], closed in 2014). HoweverIn 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the college and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Today, it is known as the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. The [[United States Military Academy]] iswas formed in 1802 as a college. AIt numbernever ofincluded collegesa beganpreparatory asunit. (high school) academies.

The academy movement in the US in the early 19th century arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the new territories and states that were being formed in the new western states. Thousands of academies were started using local funds and tuition; most closed after a few years and others were established. In 1860 there were 6,415 academies in operation. When the Civil War erupted in 1861 they generally closed down temporarily; most in the South never reopened.<ref>Colin Burke, ''American collegiate populations: A test of the traditional view'' (NYU Press, 1982) table 1.20 </ref>

In 1753, Benjamin Franklin established the academy and Charitable School of the Province of Pennsylvania. In 1755, it was renamed the college and Academy and Charitable School of Philadelphia. Today, it is known as the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. For the first time,{{when|date=May 2021}} academia was established as a [[secular]] institution. For the most part, church-based dogmatic points of view were no longer thrust upon students in the examination of their subjects of study. Points of view became more varied as students were free to wander in thought without having to add religious dimensions to their conclusions.

In 1819, Thomas Jefferson founded the [[University of Virginia]] and developed the standards used today in organizing colleges and universities across the globe. The curriculum was taken from the traditional liberal arts, classical [[humanism]] and the values introduced with the [[Protestant Reformation]]. Jefferson offered his students something new: the freedom to chart their own courses of study rather than mandate a fixed curriculum for all students. Religious colleges and universities followed suit.

The academy movement in the US in the early 19th century arose from a public sense that education in the classic disciplines needed to be extended into the new territories and states that were being formed in the [[Old Northwest]], in western New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}} Dozens of academies were founded in the area,{{where|date=May 2021}} supported by private donations.

===Germany===

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==Academic personnel==

{{Main|Academic personnelstaff}}

{{Main listing|List of academic ranks}}

{{See also|Academic administration}}

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Research journals have been so successful that the number of journals and of papers has proliferated over the past few decades, and the credo of the modern academic has become "[[publish or perish]]". Except for generalist journals such as ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' or ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', the topics covered in any single journal have tended to be narrow, and readership and citation have declined. A variety of methods for reviewing submissions exist. The most common involves initial approval by the journal, [[peer review]] by two or three researchers working in similar or closely related subjects who recommend approval or rejection as well as request error correction, clarification or additions before publishing. Controversial topics may receive additional levels of review. Journals have developed a hierarchy, partly based on reputation but also on the strictness of the review policy. More prestigious journals are more likely to receive and publish more important work. Submitters try to submit their work to the most prestigious journal likely to publish it to bolster their reputation and [[curriculum vitae]].

[[Andrew Odlyzko]], an [[academician]] with a large number of published research papers, has argued that research journals will evolve into something akin to [[Internet]] forums over the coming decade,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Odlyzko|first=Andrew M.|date=1995-01-01|title=Tragic loss or good riddance? The impending demise of traditional scholarly journals|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S107158198571004X|journal=International Journal of Human-Computer Studies|language=en|volume=42|issue=1|pages=71–122|doi=10.1006/ijhc.1995.1004|issn=1071-5819|citeseerx=10.1.1.50.97}}</ref> by extending the interactivity of current Internet [[preprint]]s. This change may open them up to a wider range of ideas, some more developed than others. Whether this will be a positive evolution remains to be seen. Some claim that forums, like markets, tend to thrive or fail based on their ability to attract talent. Some believe that highly restrictive and tightly monitored forums may be the least likely to thrive.

==Academic dress==

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* [[Academic dishonesty]]

* [[Academic elitism]]

* [[Academic history]]

* [[Academic inflation]]

* [[Academic inbreeding]]

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* [[Academic paper mill]]

* [[:Category:Academic terminology]]

* [[Academic conference]]

* [[Academic writing]]

* [[Academician]]

* [[Art school]]

* [[Bullying in academia]]

* [[Byzantine university]]

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* [http://www.scholares.net/ 'Magistri et Scholares' – Academic News and Resources]

* [http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2407 Plato's Academy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519222356/http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2407 |date=2011-05-19 }}, from the Hellenic Ministry of Culture

* Italian Academies Database (IAD): [http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/ItalianAcademies/ bl.uk/ItalianAcademies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210110319/http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/ItalianAcademies/ |date=2009-02-10 }}

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110306084318/http://italianacademies.org/ Website of the Italian Academies 1525–1700 Project]

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[[Category:Academies| ]]

[[Category:Academia| ]]

[[Category:Academic terminology| ]]

[[Category:Platonism]]