Aegean Sea: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia
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| caption = The location of the Aegean Sea
| coordinates = {{coord|39|N|25|E|type:waterbody_dim:500000|display=inline,title}}
| inflow = [[Inachos (river)|Inachos]], [[Ilisos]], [[Spercheios]], [[Pineios (Thessaly)|Pineios]], [[Haliacmon]], [[Vardar]], [[Struma (river)|Struma]], [[Nestos (river)|Nestos]], [[Maritsa]]
| islands = [[Aegean Islands|150+]]
| length = {{convert|700|km|abbr=on}}
| outflow = [[Mediterranean Sea]]
| width = {{convert|400|km|abbr=on}}
| cities = [[AlexandroupoliAlexandroupolis]], [[Athens]], [[Ayvalık]], [[Bodrum]], [[Çanakkale]], [[Çeşme]], [[Didim]], [[Heraklion]], [[İzmir]], [[Kavala]], [[Kuşadası]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Volos]]
| max-depth = 23,639544 m (811,658627 feet)<ref>{{cite web |urlname=https://data.europa.eu/data/datasets/emodnet_bathymetry?locale=en |title=EMODnet Digital Bathymetry (DTM) |publisher=European Union |accessdate=23 September 2022}}AgSeaBritannica></ref>
<!-- Map -->
| pushpin_map = Aegean Sea
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[[File:Location of the Aegean Sea.png|thumb|The extent of the Aegean Sea on a map of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]]]
The '''Aegean Sea'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|i|ˈ|dʒ|iː|ə|n}}, {{respell|ee|JEE|ən}}; {{lang-el|Αιγαίο Πέλαγος|Eyéo Pélagos}} {{IPA-el|eˈʝeo ˈpelaɣos||Ell-Aigaio Pelagos.ogg}}; {{lang-tr|Ege Denizi}} {{IPA-|tr|eˈɟe deniˈzi|}}}} is an elongated embayment of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] between [[Europe]] and [[Asia]]. It is located between the [[Balkans]] and [[Anatolia]], and covers an area of some {{Convert|215,000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aegean-Sea |title=Aegean Sea {{!}} Mediterranean Sea |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=14 June 2019 |archive-date=28 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528110411/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aegean-Sea |url-status=live }}</ref> In the north, the Aegean is connected to the [[Marmara Sea]], which in turn connects to the [[Black Sea]], by the straits of the [[Dardanelles]] and the [[Bosphorus]], respectively. The [[Aegean Islands]] are located within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery, including [[Crete]] and [[Rhodes]]. The sea reaches a maximum depth of {{Convert|23,639544|m|ft|abbr=on}} to the westeast of [[KarpathosCrete]].<ref name=AgSeaBritannica>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aegean-Sea |title=Aegean Sea|website=Britannica |access-date=29 June 2024|quote=The maximum depth of the Aegean is to be found east of Crete, where it reaches 11,627 feet (3,544 metres).|date=24 June 2024|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.}}</ref> The [[Thracian Sea]] and the [[Sea of Crete]] are main subdivisions of the Aegean Sea.
The Aegean Islands can be divided into several island groups, including the [[Dodecanese]], the [[Cyclades]], the [[Sporades]], the [[Saronic Islands|Saronic islands]] and the [[North Aegean islands|North Aegean Islands]], as well as Crete and its surrounding islands. The Dodecanese, located to the southeast, includes the islands of Rhodes, [[Kos]], and [[Patmos]]; the islands of [[Delos]] and [[Naxos]] are within the Cyclades to the south of the sea. [[Lesbos]] is part of the North Aegean Islands. [[Euboea]], the second-largest island in Greece, is located in the Aegean, despite being administered as part of [[Central Greece (administrative region)|Central Greece]]. Nine out of twelve of the Administrative regions of Greece border the sea, along with the [[Provinces of Turkey|Turkish provinces]] of [[Edirne]], [[Çanakkale]], [[Balıkesir]], [[İzmir]], [[Aydın]] and [[Muğla Province|Muğla]] to the east of the sea. Various Turkish islands in the sea are [[Imbros]], [[Tenedos]], [[Cunda Island]], and the [[Foça Islands]].
The Aegean Sea has been historically important, especially regarding the civilization of [[Ancient Greece]], which inhabited the area around the coast of the Aegean and the Aegean islands. The Aegean islands facilitated contact between the people of the area and between Europe and Asia. Along with the Greeks, [[Thracians]] lived amongalong the northern coastcoasts. The [[Roman Empire|Romans]] conquered the area under the Roman Empire, and later the [[Byzantine Empire]] held it against advances by the [[First Bulgarian Empire]]. The [[Fourth Crusade]] weakened Byzantine control of the area, and it was eventually conquered by the [[Ottoman Empire]], with the exception of Crete, which was a [[Kingdom of Candia|Venetian colony]] until 1669. The [[Greek War of Independence]] allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onwards. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until it was replaced by modern [[Turkey]].
The rocks making up the floor of the Aegean are mainly limestone, though often greatly altered by volcanic activity that has convulsed the region in relatively recent geologic times. Of particular interest are the richly colored sediments in the region of the islands of [[Santorini]] and [[Milos]], in the south Aegean.<ref name=":0" /> Notable cities on the Aegean coastline include [[Athens]], [[Thessaloniki]], [[Volos]], [[Kavala]], and [[Heraklion]] in Greece, and [[İzmir]] and [[Bodrum]] in Turkey.
A number ofSeveral issues concerning sovereignty within the Aegean Sea are disputed between Greece and Turkey. The [[Aegean dispute]] has had a large effect on [[GreekGreece–Turkey relations|Greece-TurkishTurkey relations]] since the 1970s. Issues include the delimitation of [[territorial waters]], [[national airspace]], [[exclusive economic zone]]s, and [[flight information region]]s.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Greco -Turkish dispute over the Aegean Sea |publisher=Indian Council of World Affairs (Government of India) |url=https://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=1&ls_id=8622&lid=5627 |access-date=14 January 2024 |archive-date=28 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228132826/https://www.icwa.in/show_content.php?lang=1&level=1&ls_id=8622&lid=5627 |url-status=live }}</ref>
==Name and etymology==
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The Aegean Islands, which almost all belong to [[Greece]], can be divided into seven groups:
# [[List of Aegean Islands#The North Aegean Islands|Northeastern Aegean Islands]], which lie in the [[Thracian Sea]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aegean-Sea#ref170179|title=Aegean Sea {{!}} Mediterranean Sea|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=18 October 2017|language=en|archive-date=28 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230528110411/https://www.britannica.com/place/Aegean-Sea#ref170179|url-status=live}}</ref>
# [[Euboea|East Aegean Islands (''Euboea'')]]
# Northern [[Sporades]]
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The bays and gulfs of the Aegean beginning at the South and moving clockwise include on Crete, the [[Mirabello Bay|Mirabello]], [[Almyros Bay|Almyros]], [[Souda Bay|Souda]] and [[Gulf of Chania|Chania]] bays or gulfs, on the mainland the [[Myrtoan Sea]] to the west with the [[Argolic Gulf]], the [[Saronic Gulf]] northwestward, the [[Petalies Gulf]] which connects with the [[Gulf of Euboea|South Euboic Sea]], the [[Pagasetic Gulf]] which connects with the [[Gulf of Euboea|North Euboic Sea]], the [[Thermian Gulf]] northwestward, the [[Chalkidiki]] Peninsula including the [[Cassandra Gulf|Cassandra]] and the [[Singitic Gulf]]s, northward the [[Strymonian Gulf]] and the [[Gulf of Kavala]] and the rest are in [[Turkey]]; [[Saros Gulf]], [[Edremit (District), Balıkesir|Edremit]] Gulf, [[Dikili Gulf]], [[Gulf of Çandarlı]], [[Gulf of İzmir]], [[Gulf of Kuşadası]], [[Gulf of Gökova]], [[Güllük]] Gulf.
The Aegean Sea is connected to the Sea of Marmara by the [[Dardanelles]], also known from Classical Antiquity as the Hellespont. The Dardanelles are located to the northeast of the sea. It ultimately connects with the [[Black Sea]] through the [[Bosporus|Bosphoros]] strait, upon which lies the city of [[Istanbul]]. The Dardanelles and the BosphorosBosporus are known as the [[Turkish Straits]].
===Extent===
According to the [[International Hydrographic Organization]], the limits of the Aegean Sea as follows:<ref name="iho">{{cite web|url=https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf#page=20|title=Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition|format=PDF|year=1953|publisher=International Hydrographic Organization|access-date=20 October 2021|page=18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008191433/http://www.iho.int/iho_pubs/standard/S-23/S-23_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf#page=20|archive-date=8 October 2011}}</ref>
* On the south: A line running from [[Cape Aspro]] (28°16′E) in [[Asia Minor]], to Cum Burnù (Capo della Sabbia) the Northeast extreme of the Island of [[Rhodes]], through the island to Cape [[Prasonisi]], the Southwest point thereof, on to Vrontos Point (35°33′N) in Skarpanto <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Karpathos]]<nowiki>]</nowiki>, through this island to Castello Point, the South extreme thereof, across to Cape Plaka (East extremity of Crete), through Crete to Agria Grabusa, the Northwest extreme thereof, thence to Cape ApolitaresApolytares in [[Antikythera|Antikithera]] Island, through the island to Psira Rock (off the Northwest point) and across to Cape Trakhili in [[Kythira|Kithera]] Island, through KitheraKythira to the Northwest point ([[Cape Karavugia]]) and thence to Cape Santa Maria ({{coord|36|28|N|22|57|E|display=inline}}) in the [[Morea]].
* In the Dardanelles: A line joining Kum Kale (26°11′E) and [[Cape Helles]].
===Hydrography===
Aegean surface water circulates in a counterclockwise [[Ocean gyre|gyre]], with [[hypersaline]] Mediterranean water moving northward along the west coast of [[Turkey]], before being displaced by less dense [[Black Sea]] outflow. The dense [[Mediterranean]] water sinks below the Black Sea inflow to a depth of {{convert|23|-|30|m}}, then flows through the [[Dardanelles Strait]] and into the [[Sea of Marmara]] at velocities of {{cvt|5|-|15|cm/s|in/s|0}}. The Black Sea outflow moves westward along the northern Aegean Sea, then flows southwards along the east coast of Greece.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aksu |first1=A.E. |last2=Yaşar |first2=D. |last3=Mudie |first3=P.J. |last4=Gillespie |first4=H. |title=Late glacial-Holocene paleoclimatic and paleoceanographic evolution of the Aegean Sea: micropaleontological and stable isotopic evidence |journal=Marine Micropaleontology |date=April 1995 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–28 |doi=10.1016/0377-8398(94)00026-J |bibcode=1995MarMP..25....1A }}</ref>
The physical oceanography of the Aegean Sea is controlled mainly by the regional climate, the fresh water discharge from major rivers draining southeastern Europe, and the seasonal variations in the Black Sea surface water outflow through the [[Dardanelles Strait]].
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* '''Aegean Sea Surface Water''' – {{convert|40|-|50|m}} thick veneer, with summer temperatures of 21–26 °C and winter temperatures ranging from {{convert|10|°C}} in the north to {{convert|16|°C}} in the south.
* '''Aegean Sea Intermediate Water''' – Aegean Sea Intermediate Water extends from {{convert|40 to |-|50 |m|abbr=on}} to {{convert|200|-|300|m|abbr=on}} with temperatures ranging from {{convert|11 to |-|18 °|C}}.
* '''Aegean Sea Bottom Water''' – occurring at depths below 500–1000 {{convert|500|-|1000|m|abbr=on}} with a very uniform temperature (13–14 °{{convert|13|-|14|C}}) and salinity (3.91–3.92%).
===Climate===
[[File:Greece map of Köppen climate classification (new).svg|thumb|Climate map of Greece. Most of the landmass surrounding the Aegean seaSea is classified as ''Csa'', with the northern region being ''BSk''.]]
The climate of the Aegean Sea largely reflects the climate of Greece and Western Turkey, which is to say, predominantly [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]]. According to the [[Köppen climate classification]], most of the Aegean is classified as [[Mediterranean climate|Hot-summer Mediterranean]] (''Csa''), with hotter and drier summers along with milder and wetter winters. However, high temperatures during summers are generally not quite as high as those in arid or semiarid climates due to the presence of a large body of water. This is most predominant in the west and east coasts of the Aegean, and within the Aegean islands. In the north of the Aegean Sea, the climate is instead classified as [[Semi-arid climate|Cold semi-arid]] ''(BSk)'', which feature cooler summers than Hot-summer Mediterranean climates. The [[Etesian]] winds are a dominant weather influence in the Aegean Basin.
The below table lists climate conditions of some major Aegean cities:
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!days
|-
|[[AlexandroupoliAlexandroupolis]]
|8.4
|47.1
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|3.8
|-
| colspan="11" |Source: [[World Meteorological Organization]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldweather.wmo.int/europe.htm|title=World Weather Information Service – Europe|website=worldweather.wmo.int|access-date=16 June 2019|archive-date=25 November 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051125063413/https://worldweather.wmo.int/europe.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Turkish State Meteorological Service]]<ref>[https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?m=IZMIR "Resmi İstatistikler: İllerimize Ait Genel İstatistik Verileri"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416120845/https://www.mgm.gov.tr/veridegerlendirme/il-ve-ilceler-istatistik.aspx?m=IZMIR |date=16 April 2019 }} (in Turkish). Turkish State Meteorological Service. Retrieved 4 May 2019.</ref>
|}
===Population===
Numerous Greek and Turkish settlements are located along their mainland coast, as well as on towns on the Aegean islands. The largest cities are Athens and Thessaloniki in Greece and İzmir in Turkey. The most populated of the Aegean islands is Crete, followed by Euboea and Rhodes.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Coughlin |first=Tara |title=10 Largest Islands in Greece |url=https://www.touropia.com/largest-islands-in-greece/ |access-date=2024-06-12 |website=Touropia |language=en-US |archive-date=22 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222150629/https://www.touropia.com/largest-islands-in-greece/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{|class="infobox" style="text-align:center; width:97%; margin-right:10px; font-size:90%"
|+Most populous urban areas on the Aegean coast
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Athens
[[File:WhiteSkyscrapers Towerin andIzmir Beach- frontTurkey.jpg|frameless|150x150px|alt=]]
İzmir▼
Thessaloniki▼
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|Rank
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|City
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! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|Region/County
! style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|Population (urban)
!rowspan=23 width:150|[[File:SkyscrapersWhite inTower Izmirand -Beach Turkeyfront.jpg|frameless|150x150px|alt=]]
▲Thessaloniki
▲İzmir
[[File:VenetianBodrum ArsenalsCastle in Heraklion Crete(2017).jpg|frameless|150x150px|alt=]]
Bodrum
Heraklion
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|1||align=left|'''[[Athens]]'''||Greece||[[Central Greece (geographic region)|Central Greece]]||3,090,508
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|2||align=left|'''[[İzmir]]'''||Turkey||[[İzmir Province]]||2,947948,000609
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|3||align=left|'''[[Thessaloniki]]'''||Greece||[[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]]||824,676
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|4||align=left|'''[[HeraklionBodrum]]'''||GreeceTurkey||[[CreteMuğla Province]]||173198,993335
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|5||align=left|'''[[VolosÇanakkale]]'''||GreeceTurkey||[[ThessalyÇanakkale Province]]||144182,449389
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|6||align=left|'''[[ÇanakkaleHeraklion]]'''||TurkeyGreece||[[Çanakkale ProvinceCrete]]||111173,137993
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|7||align=left|'''[[ChaniaVolos]]'''||Greece||[[CreteThessaly]]||108144,642449
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|8||align=left|'''[[Rhodes (city)Kuşadası]]'''||GreeceTurkey||[[SouthAydın AegeanProvince]]||86133,199177
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|9||align=left|'''[[AlexandroupoliChania]]'''||Greece||[[Western ThraceCrete]]||72108,959642
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"|10||align=left|'''[[KavalaDidim]]'''||GreeceTurkey||[[MacedoniaAydın (Greece)|MacedoniaProvince]]||70100,501189
|-
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center; background:#f5f5f5;"|
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==Biogeography and ecology==
===Protected areas===
Greece has established several [[marine protected area]]s along its coasts. According to the Network of Managers of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean ([[MedPAN]]), four Greek MPAs are participating in the Network. These include [[Alonnisos Marine Park]], while the [[Missolonghi–Aitoliko Lagoons]] and the island of [[Zakynthos]] are not on the Aegean.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mpatlas.org/region/country/GRC/|title=MPAtlas » Greece|website=www.mpatlas.org|access-date=16 June 2019}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
==History==
===Ancient history===
[[File:Cycladic figurine, female, 2800-2300 BC, AM Naxos (13 01), 143205.jpg|200px|thumb|upright=1.25|Female figure from [[Naxos]] (2800-23002800–2300 BC)]]
The current coastline dates back to about 4000 BC. Before that time, at the peak of the [[last glacial period|last ice age]] (about 18,000 years ago) sea levels everywhere were {{Convert|130 metres|m}} lower, and there were large well-watered coastal plains instead of much of the northern Aegean. When they were first occupied, the present-day islands including [[Milos]] with its important [[obsidian]] production were probably still connected to the mainland. The present coastal arrangement appeared around 9,000 years ago, with post-ice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3,000 years after that.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Tjeerd H. van Andel |author2=Judith C. Shackleton |title=Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic Coastlines of Greece and the Aegean|journal=Journal of Field Archaeology |volume=9|issue=4|date=Winter 1982|pages=445–454|jstor=529681 |doi=10.1179/009346982791504454}}</ref>
The subsequent [[Bronze Age]] civilizations of Greece and the Aegean Sea have given rise to the general term ''[[Aegean civilization]]''. In ancient times, the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations – the [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] of Crete and the [[Mycenaean Greece|MyceneansMycenaeans]] of the [[Peloponnese]].<ref>Tracey Cullen, ''Aegean Prehistory: A Review'' (American Journal of Archaeology. Supplement, 1); Oliver Dickinson, ''The Aegean Bronze Age'' (Cambridge World Archaeology).</ref>
The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age civilization on the island of Crete and other Aegean islands, flourishing from around 3000 to 1450 BC before a period of decline, finally ending at around 1100 BC. It represented the first advanced civilization in Europe, leaving behind massive building complexes, tools, stunning artwork, writing systems, and a massive network of trade.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0071.xml;jsessionid=34C7E22759BF3739960486FE75375115|title=Ancient Crete – Classics |website=Oxford Bibliographies |language=en |doi=10.1093/obo/9780195389661-0071 |first1= Angelos |last1=Chaniotis |first2=Antonis |last2=Kotsonas |access-date=17 June 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617030905/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195389661/obo-9780195389661-0071.xml;jsessionid=34C7E22759BF3739960486FE75375115 |archive-date= 17 June 2019 }}</ref> The Minoan period saw extensive trade between Crete, Aegean, and Mediterranean settlements, particularly the Near East. The most notable Minoan palace is that of [[Knossos]], followed by that of [[Phaistos]]. The Mycenaean Greeks arose on the mainland, becoming the first advanced civilization in mainland Greece, which lasted from approximately 1600 to 1100 BC. It is believed that the site of [[Mycenae]], which sits close to the Aegean coast, was the center of Mycenaean civilization. The Mycenaeans introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering, architecture and military infrastructure, while trade over vast areas of the Mediterranean, including the Aegean, was essential for the Mycenaean economy. Their [[syllabic script]], the [[Linear B]], offers the first written records of the Greek language and [[Mycenaean religion|their religion]] already included several deities that can also be found in the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympic Pantheon]]. Mycenaean Greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of [[palace]]-centered states that developed rigid hierarchical, political, social and economic systems. At the head of this society was the king, known as ''[[wanax]]''.
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[[File:Greek Galleys.jpg|200px|thumb|upright=1.25|A fleet of Athenian [[trireme]]]]
[[File:Celcius library.jpg|200px|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Library of Celsus]], a Roman structure in important sea port [[Ephesus]]]]
The [[Archaic Greece|Archaic period]] followed the Greek Dark Ages in the 8th century BC. Greece became divided into small self-governing communities, and adopted the [[Phoenician alphabet]], modifying it to create the [[Greek alphabet]]. By the 6th century BC several cities had emerged as dominant in Greek affairs: Athens, Sparta, [[Corinth, Greece|Corinth]], and [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]], of which Athens, Sparta, and Corinth were closest to the Aegean Sea. Each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control, and Athens and Corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC many Greeks emigratedmigrated to form [[Colonies in antiquity|colonies]] in [[Magna Graecia]] ([[Southern Italy]] and [[Sicily]]), Asia Minor and further afield. The Aegean Sea was the setting for one of the most pivotal naval engagements in history, when, on September 20, September 480 B.C., the Athenian fleet gained a decisive victory over the Persian fleet of the [[Xerxes II of Persia]] at the [[Battle of Salamis]]. Thus ending any further attempt of western expansion by the [[Achaemenid Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Herodotus |title=Histories. Book VIII |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Bowie, Angus M. |isbn=978-0-521-57328-3 |location=Cambridge, UK |oclc=159628612 }}</ref>
The Aegean Sea would later come to be under the control, albeit briefly, of the [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Kingdom of Macedonia]]. [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]] and his son [[Alexander the Great]] led a series of conquests that led not only to the unification of the Greek mainland and the control of the Aegean Sea under his rule, but also the destruction of the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. After Alexander the Great's death, his empire was divided among his generals. [[Cassander]] became king of the Hellenistic kingdom of Macedon, which held territory along the western coast of the Aegean, roughly corresponding to modern-day Greece. The Kingdom of [[Lysimachus]] had control over the sea's eastern coast. Greece had entered the [[Hellenistic period]].
===Roman rule===
The Macedonian Wars were a series of conflicts fought by the [[Roman Republic]] and its Greek allies in the eastern Mediterranean against several different major Greek kingdoms. They resulted in Roman control or influence over the eastern [[Mediterranean]] basin, including the Aegean, in addition to their hegemony in the western Mediterranean after the [[Punic Wars]]. During Roman rule, the land around the Aegean Sea fell under the provinces of [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]], [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], [[Thracia]], [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]] and [[Crete and Cyrenaica|Creta et CyrenicaCyrenaica]] (island of Crete)
===Medieval period===
{{unreferencedsection|date=June 2024}}
[[File:Emirate of Crete Map.svg|200px|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Emirate of Crete]], after early conquest of Arabs]]
The [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]] allowed its successor state, the [[Byzantine Empire]], to continue Roman control over the Aegean Sea. However, their territory would later be threatened by the [[Early Muslim conquests]] initiated by [[Muhammad]] in the 7th century. Although the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] did not manage to obtain land along the coast of the Aegean seaSea, its conquest of the Eastern Anatolian peninsula as well as Egypt, the Levant, and North Africa left the Byzantine Empire weakened. The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] expanded the territorial gains of the Rashidun Caliphate, conquering much of North Africa, and threatened the Byzantine Empire's control of Western Anatolia, where it meets the Aegean Sea.
During the 820s, Crete was conquered by a group of [[Berbers]] [[Al-Andalus|Andalusians]] exiles led by [[Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi]], and it became an independent [[Islamic]] state. The Byzantine Empire launched a campaign that took most of the island back in 842 and 843 under [[Theoktistos]], but the reconquestre-conquest was not completed and was soon reversed. Later attempts by the [[Byzantine Empire]] to recover the island were without success. For the approximately 135 years of its existence, the emirate of Crete was one of the major foes of Byzantium. Crete commanded the sea lanes of the Eastern Mediterranean and functioned as a forward base and haven for Muslim corsair fleets that ravaged the Byzantine-controlled shores of the Aegean Sea. Crete returned to Byzantine rule under [[Nikephoros II|Nikephoros Phokas]], who launched a huge campaign against the Emirate of Crete in 960 to 961.
Meanwhile, the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]] threatened Byzantine control of Northern Greece and the Aegean coast to the south. Under [[Presian I of Bulgaria|Presian I]] and his successor [[Boris I of Bulgaria|Boris I]], the Bulgarian Empire managed to obtain a small portion of the northern Aegean coast. [[Simeon I of Bulgaria]] led Bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion, and managed to conqueror much of the northern and western coasts of the Aegean. The Byzantines later regained control. The Second Bulgarian Empire achieved similar success along, again, the northern and western coasts, under [[Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria]].
[[File:Aegean Sea by Piri Reis.jpg|200px|thumb|upright=1.25|A 1528 map of the Aegean Sea by Turkish geographer [[Piri Reis]]]]
The [[SeljuqSeljuk dynasty|Seljuk Turks]], under the [[Seljuk Empire]], invaded the Byzantine Empire in 1068, from which they annexed almost all the territories of Anatolia, including the east coast of the Aegean Sea, during the reign of [[Alp Arslan]], the second [[Sultan]] of the [[Seljuk Empire]]. After the death of his successor, [[Malik Shah I]], the empire was divided, and Malik Shah was succeeded in Anatolia by [[Kilij Arslan I]], who founded the [[Sultanate of Rum]]. The Byzantines yet again recaptured the eastern coast of the Aegean.
After [[Constantinople]] was occupied by Western European and Venetian forces during the [[Fourth Crusade]], the area around the Aegean seaSea was fragmented into multiple entities, including the [[Latin Empire]], the [[Kingdom of Thessalonica]], the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Principality of Achaea]], and the [[Duchy of Athens]]. The Venetians created the maritime state of the [[Duchy of the Archipelago]], which included all the Cyclades except [[Mykonos]] and [[Tinos]]. The Empire of Nicaea, a Byzantine rump state, managed to effectaffect the [[Recapture of Constantinople]] from the Latins in 1261 and defeat Epirus. Byzantine successes were not to last; the Ottomans would conquer the area around the Aegean coast, but before their expansion the Byzantine Empire had already been weakened from internal conflict. By the late 14th century, the Byzantine Empire had lost all control of the coast of the Aegean Sea and could exercise power around their capital, Constantinople. The Ottoman Empire then gained control of all the Aegean coast with the exception of Crete, which was a Venetian colony until 1669.
===Modern Period===
[[File:German tanks in Rhodes.gif|200px|thumb|upright=1.25|German Tanks in [[Rhodes]] during the [[WW2]]]]
The [[Greek War of Independence]] allowed a Greek state on the coast of the Aegean from 1829 onward. The Ottoman Empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until its [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|dissolution]] following [[World War I]], when it was replaced by modern [[Turkey]]. During the war, Greece gained control over the area around the northern coast of the Aegean. By the 1930s, Greece and Turkey had about resumed their present-day borders.
In the [[Italo-Turkish War]] of 1912, Italy captured the Dodecanese islands, and had occupied them since, reneging on the 1919 [[Eleftherios Venizelos|Venizelos]]–[[Tommaso Tittoni|Tittoni]] agreement to cede them to Greece. The Greco-Italian War took place from October 1940 to April 1941 as part of the [[Balkans Campaign (World War II)|Balkans Campaign]] of [[World War II]]. The Italian war aim was to establish a Greek [[puppet state]], which would permit the Italian annexation of the [[Sporades]] and the [[Cyclades]] islands in the Aegean Sea, to be administered as a part of the [[Italian Aegean Islands]]. The German invasion resulted in the [[Axis occupation of Greece]]. The German troops evacuated Athens on 12 October 1944, and by the end of the month, they had withdrawn from mainland Greece. Greece was then liberated by Allied troops.
==Economy and politics==
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===Transport===
Multiple ports are located along the Greek and Turkish coasts of the Aegean Sea. The [[port of Piraeus]] in Athens is the chief port in Greece, the largest passenger port in Europe<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081220151552/http://www.olp.gr/INDEXen.htm "Presentation"]. http://www.olp.gr. Archived from [http://www.olp.gr/en/INDEXen.htm the original] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220151552/http://www.olp.gr/INDEXen.htm |date=20 December 2008 }} on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2008.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.maritime-database.com/port.php?pid=2239|title=Piraeus by Maritime Database|website=www.maritime-database.com|access-date=17 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416152404/http://www.maritime-database.com/port.php?pid=2239|archive-date=16 April 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the third largest in the world,<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081203132339/http://www.anek.gr/english/dromol/pireaus1.html "ANEK Lines – Piraeus"]. [[ANEK Lines|http://www.anek.gr]]. Archived from [https://www.anek.gr/en/english/dromol/pireaus1.html the original]{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} on 3 December 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2008.</ref> [[List of busiest cruise ports by passengers|servicing about 20 million passengers]] annually. With a throughput of 1.4 million [[Twenty-foot equivalent unit|TEUs]], Piraeus is placed among the top ten ports in container traffic in Europe and the top container port in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081220151552/http://www.olp.gr/INDEXen.htm "Container terminal"]. http://www.olp.gr {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160731043505/http://www.olp.gr/ |date=31 July 2016 }}. Archived from [http://www.olp.gr/en/INDEXen.htm the original] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081220151552/http://www.olp.gr/INDEXen.htm |date=20 December 2008 }} on 20 December 2008. Retrieved 27 December 2008.</ref> Piraeus is also the commercial hub of [[Greek shipping]]. Piraeus bi-annually acts as the focus for a major shipping convention, known as Posidonia, which attracts maritime industry professionals from all over the world. Piraeus is currently Greece's third-busiest port in terms of tons of goods transported, behind [[AghioiAgioi Theodoroi]] and [[Port of Thessaloniki|Thessaloniki]].<ref>{{cite web |urlyear=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=mar_go_aa&lang=en2010 |title=Maritime transport – Goods (gross weight) – Annual data – All ports – by direction |yearurl=2010http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=mar_go_aa&lang=en |publisherurl-status=[[Eurostat]]live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121143656/http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=mar_go_aa&lang=en |archive-date=21 January 2012 |access-date=2 December 2011 |publisher=[[Eurostat]]}} </ref>{{verify source |date=August 2019 |reason=This ref was deleted ([[Special:Diff/902179474]]) by a bug in VisualEditor and later restored by a bot from the original cite at [[Special:Permalink/901463900]] cite #27 – please verify the cite's accuracy and remove this {verify source} template. [[User:GreenC bot/Job 18]]}}</ref> The central port serves ferry routes to almost every island in the eastern portion of Greece, the island of Crete, the Cyclades, the Dodecanese, and much of the northern and the eastern Aegean Sea, while the western part of the port is used for cargo services.
As of 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki was the second-largest container port in Greece after the port of Piraeus, making it one of the busiest ports in Greece. In 2007, the Port of Thessaloniki handled 14,373,245 tonnes of cargo and 222,824 [[Twenty-foot equivalent unit|TEU's]]. Paloukia, on the island of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], is a major passenger port.
===Fishing===
Fish are Greece's second-largest agricultural export, and Greece has Europe's largest fishing fleet.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-way-of-life-drowned-by-greeces-crisis-1440051334 |title=A Way of Life Drowned by Greece's Crisis |last1=Forelle |first1=Charles |last2=Kantchev |first2=Georgi |last3=Kelly |first3=Mark |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=20 August 2015 |access-date=16 June 2019 |issn=0099-9660 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312034946/https://www.wsj.com/articles/a-way-of-life-drowned-by-greeces-crisis-1440051334 |url-status=live }}</ref> Fish captured include [[Sardines as food|sardines]], [[Mackerel as food|mackerel]], [[grouper]], [[grey mullet]]s, [[sea bass]], and [[Sparidae|seabream]]. There is a considerable difference between fish catches between the pelagic and demersal zones;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stergiou, Pollard |date=August 1994 |title=A spatial analysis of the commercial fisheries catches from the Greek Aegean Sea |journal=Fisheries Research |volume=20 |issue= 2–3|pages=109–135 |doi=10.1016/0165-7836(94)90078-7|bibcode=1994FishR..20..109S }}</ref> with respect to pelagic fisheries, the catches from the northern, central and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated, respectively, by [[anchovy]], [[Trachurus|horse mackerels]], and [[boops]]. For demersal fisheries, the catches from the northern and southern Aegean area groupings are dominated by [[Mullet (fish)|grey mullets]] and [[Spicara smaris|pickerel]] (''Spicara smaris'') respectively.
The industry has been impacted by the [[Great Recession]].{{clarify|date=August 2019}} Overfishing and [[habitat destruction]] is also a concern, threatening [[grouper]], and [[Sparidae|seabream]] populations, resulting in perhaps a 50% decline of fish catch.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-fishing-idUSKBN1JS1HK |title=As stocks deplete, Greek fishermen scrap boats and livelihoods |publisher=Reuters |date=3 July 2018 |access-date=16 June 2019 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326163001/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-greece-fishing-idUSKBN1JS1HK |url-status=live }}</ref> To address these concerns, Greek fishermen have been offered a compensation by the government. Although some species are defined as protected or threatened under EU legislation, several illegal species such as the molluscs ''[[Pinna nobilis]]'', ''[[Charonia tritonis]]'' and ''[[Lithophaga lithophaga]]'', can be bought in restaurants and fish markets around Greece.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://archipelago.gr/en/our-work/marine-conservation/fisheries/ |title=Fisheries |website=Archipelagos |access-date=16 June 2019 |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615190235/https://archipelago.gr/en/our-work/marine-conservation/fisheries/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
===Tourism===
[[File:Chora of Mykonos (9).jpg|thumb|Tourists in the town of [[Mykonos]], part of the Cyclades]]
The Aegean islands within the Aegean Sea are significant tourist destinations. Tourism to the Aegean islands contributes a significant portion of [[tourism in Greece]], especially since the second half of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bramwell |first=Bill |title=Coastal Mass Tourism: Diversification and Sustainable Development in Southern Europe |publisher=Channel View Publications |year=2004 |isbn=1845413733}}</ref> A total of five UNESCO [[World Heritage Site|World Heritage sites]] are located the Aegean Islands; these include the [[Monastery of Saint John the Theologian]] and the [[Cave of the Apocalypse]] on [[Patmos]],<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "The Historic Centre (Chorá) with the Monastery of Saint-John the Theologian and the Cave of the Apocalypse on the Island of Pátmos". ''whc.unesco.org''. Retrieved 8 September 2016.</ref> the [[Pythagoreion]] and [[Heraion of Samos]] in [[Samos]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/595/|title=Pythagoreion and Heraion of Samos|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-date=22 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722065336/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/595/|url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Nea Moni of Chios]],<ref>"Monasteries of Daphni, Hosios Loukas and Nea Moni of Chios". UNESCO. Retrieved 30 September 2012.</ref> the island of [[Delos]],<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Delos". ''whc.unesco.org''. Retrieved 7 September 2016.</ref> and the [[Rhodes (city)|Medieval City of Rhodes.]]<ref>Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Medieval City of Rhodes". ''whc.unesco.org''. Retrieved 7 September 2016.</ref>
Greece is one of the [[World Tourism rankings#Europe|most visited countries]] in Europe and the world with over 33 million visitors in 2018,<ref>[https://hellasjournal.com/2019/01/entyposiazoyn-ta-stoicheia-toy-ypoyrgeioy-toyrismoy-ta-esoda-xepernoyn-ta-21-dis-eyro/ "Tourism Ministry statistics impress".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190422114729/https://hellasjournal.com/2019/01/entyposiazoyn-ta-stoicheia-toy-ypoyrgeioy-toyrismoy-ta-esoda-xepernoyn-ta-21-dis-eyro/ |date=22 April 2019 }} Retrieved 30 January 2019.</ref> and the tourism industry around a quarter of Greece's Gross Domestic Product.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.marketinggreece.com/blog/o-toyrismos-einai-ypothesi-olon-mas|title=Αλέξανδρος Βασιλικός: Ο τουρισμός είναι υπόθεση όλων μας|date=5 February 2019|website=Marketing Greece|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-date=25 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925165536/https://www.marketinggreece.com/blog/o-toyrismos-einai-ypothesi-olon-mas|url-status=live}}</ref> The islands of Santorini, Crete, Lesbos, Delos, and Mykonos are common tourist destinations. An estimated 2 million tourists visit Santorini annually.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/28/santorini-popularity-soars-but-locals-say-it-has-hit-saturation-point|title=Santorini's popularity soars but locals say it has hit saturation point|last=Smith|first=Helena|date=28 August 2017|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 June 2019|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=28 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828161359/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/28/santorini-popularity-soars-but-locals-say-it-has-hit-saturation-point|url-status=live}}</ref> However, concerns relating to [[overtourism]] have arisen in recent years, such as issues of inadequate infrastructure and overcrowding.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.traveller.com.au/greece-tourism-numbers-europes-latest-victim-of-overtourism-h110v6|title=Overwhelmed: Greece the latest country to be overrun by tourists|last=Smith|first=Oliver|date=6 June 2018|website=Traveller|language=en-au|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007094724/https://www.traveller.com.au/greece-tourism-numbers-europes-latest-victim-of-overtourism-h110v6|url-status=live}}</ref> Alongside Greece, Turkey has also been successful in developing resort areas and attracting large number of tourists,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gülcan |first1=Yaprak |last2=Kuştepeli |first2=Yeşim |last3=Akgüngör |first3=Sedef |title=Public Policies and Development of the Tourism Industry in the Aegean Region |journal=European Planning Studies |date=October 2009 |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=1509–1523 |doi=10.1080/09654310903141722 |s2cid=154452680 }}</ref> contributing to [[tourism in Turkey]]. The phrase "[[Blue Cruise]]" refers to recreational voyages along the [[Turkish Riviera]], including across the Aegean.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/02/travel/02sailingbx.html|title=Where to Raise the Sails, or Just a Glass|last=Holliday|first=Taylor|date=2 July 2006|work=The New York Times|access-date=15 June 2019|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=6 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180106164506/https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/02/travel/02sailingbx.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The ancient city of [[Troy]], a World Heritage Site, is on the Turkish coast of the Aegean.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849/|title=Archaeological Site of Troy|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-date=8 December 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051208060954/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/849/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Greece and Turkey both take part in the [[Blue Flag beach]] certification programme of the [[Foundation for Environmental Education]]. The certification is awarded for beaches and [[marina]]s meeting strict quality standards including environmental protection, water quality, safety and services criteria.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fee-international.org/en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080815203855/http://www.fee-international.org/en|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 August 2008|title=FEE – Foundation for Environmental Education|date=15 August 2008|access-date=15 June 2019}}</ref> As of 2015, the Blue Flag has been awarded to 395 beaches and 9 marinas in Greece. Southern Aegean beaches on the Turkish coast include [[Muğla]], with 102 beaches awarded with the blue flag, along with [[İzmir]] and [[Aydın]], who have 49 and 30 beaches awarded respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.goturkeytourism.com/things-to-do/blue-flag-beaches-in-turkey.html|title=Blue Flag Beaches in Turkey {{!}} Go Turkey Tourism|website=www.goturkeytourism.com|access-date=15 June 2019|archive-date=27 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627063039/https://www.goturkeytourism.com/things-to-do/blue-flag-beaches-in-turkey.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=D'Alessandro |first1=W. |last2=Bellomo |first2=S. |last3=Brusca |first3=L. |last4=Kyriakopoulos |first4=K. |last5=Calabrese |first5=S. |last6=Daskalopoulou |first6=K. |title=The impact of natural and anthropogenic factors on groundwater quality in an active volcanic/geothermal system under semi-arid climatic conditions: The case study of Methana peninsula (Greece) |journal=Journal of Geochemical Exploration |date=April 2017 |volume=175 |pages=110–119 |doi=10.1016/j.gexplo.2017.01.003 |bibcode=2017JCExp.175..110D }}</ref>
==See also==