Aluminium: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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'''Aluminium''' (or '''~~Aluminum~~aluminum''' in [[North American English]]) is a [[chemical element]]; it has [[chemical symbol|symbol]] '''Al''' and [[atomic number]] 13. Aluminium has a density lower than that of other common [[metal]]s, about one-third that of [[steel]]. It has a great affinity towards [[oxygen]], [[passivation (chemistry)|forming a protective layer]] of [[aluminium oxide|oxide]] on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles [[silver]], both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, [[magnetism|nonmagnetic]], and [[ductility|ductile]]. It has one stable isotope, 27Al, which is highly abundant, making aluminium the [[abundance of the chemical elements|twelfth-most common element]] in the universe. The [[radioactive decay|radioactivity]] of [[aluminium-26|26Al]], a more unstable isotope, leads to it being used in [[radiometric dating]].

Chemically, aluminium is a [[post-transition metal]] in the [[boron group]]; as is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 [[oxidation state]]. The aluminium [[cation]] Al3+ is [[Fajans' rules|small and highly charged]]; as such, it has more [[chemical polarity|polarizing power]], and [[chemical bond|bonds]] formed by aluminium have a more [[covalent bond|covalent]] character. The strong affinity of aluminium for oxygen leads to the common occurrence of its oxides in nature. Aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the [[Earth's crust|crust]], where it is the [[abundance of elements in Earth's crust|third-most abundant element]], after [[oxygen]] and [[silicon]], rather than in the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], and virtually never as the [[free element|free metal]]. It is obtained industrially by mining [[bauxite]], a [[sedimentary rock]] rich in aluminium minerals.

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|url=https://ciaaw.org/aluminium.htm

|title=Aluminium

|publisher=The Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights|access-date=~~2020-10-~~20 October 2020

|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923154544/https://www.ciaaw.org/aluminium.htm|url-status=live}}

</ref> However, minute traces of 26Al are produced from [[argon]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] by [[spallation]] caused by [[cosmic ray]] protons. The ratio of 26Al to [[beryllium-10|10Be]] has been used for [[Radiometric dating|radiodating]] of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, [[sediment]] storage, burial times, and erosion.<ref>{{cite book

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|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-53017-0|chapter=''In situ'' Cosmogenic Isotopes

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010805/http://www.onafarawayday.com/Radiogenic/Ch14/Ch14-6.htm|archive-date=6 December 2008|url-status=dead

~~|df=dmy-all~~|access-date=16 July 2008}}

</ref> Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and [[planetary differentiation|differentiation]] of some [[asteroids]] after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.<ref>{{cite book

|title=Thunderstones and Shooting Stars

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|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-89137-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/thunderstonessho00dodd_673/page/n99 89]–90}}</ref>

The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with [[mass number]]s ranging from 2221 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three [[metastable]] states are known, all with half-lives under a minute.<ref name="IAEA">{{cite web

|url=https://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html

|title=Livechart – Table of Nuclides – Nuclear structure and decay data

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Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray depending on its [[surface roughness]].{{efn|The two sides of aluminium foil differ in their luster: one is shiny and the other is dull. The difference is due to the small mechanical damage on the surface of dull side arising from the technological process of aluminium foil manufacturing.<ref name="ReynoldsKitchens">{{Cite web

|title=Heavy Duty Foil

|url=https://www.reynoldskitchens.com/products/aluminum-foil/heavy-duty-foil/|website=Reynolds Kitchens|language=en|access-date=~~2020-09-~~20 September 2020

|archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923185810/https://www.reynoldskitchens.com/products/aluminum-foil/heavy-duty-foil/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Both sides reflect similar amounts of visible light, but the shiny side reflects a far greater share of visible light [[specular reflection|specularly]] whereas the dull side almost exclusively [[Diffuse reflection|diffuses]] light. Both sides of aluminium foil serve as good [[Reflectance|reflectors]] (approximately 86%) of [[visible light]] and an excellent reflector (as much as 97%) of medium and far [[infrared]] radiation.<ref name="Pozzobon">{{Cite journal

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|last=Seldes|first=George|url=https://archive.org/stream/FactsAndFascism/FactsandFascism_djvu.txt|title=Facts and Fascism|publisher=In Fact, Inc.|year=1943|edition=5|page=261|author-link=George Seldes}}</ref><ref name="Thorsheim2015">{{cite book|last=Thorsheim|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uUlLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66|title=Waste into Weapons|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-107-09935-7|pages=66–69|access-date=7 January 2021|archive-date=6 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406160604/https://books.google.com/books?id=uUlLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Weeks20042">{{cite book|last=Weeks|first=Albert Loren|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC&pg=PA135|title=Russia's Life-saver: Lend-lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7391-0736-2|page=135|access-date=7 January 2021|archive-date=6 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406160618/https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC&pg=PA135|url-status=live}}</ref>

By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=69–70}} In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of [[copper]],{{efn|Compare annual statistics of aluminium<ref name="USGS" /> and copper<ref name="USGS Copper">{{Cite report|chapter-url=https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/|title=Historical Statistics for Mineral Commodities in the United States|chapter=Copper. Supply-Demand Statistics|year=2017|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|language=en|access-date=4 June 2019~~-06-04~~|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308171100/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/|archive-date=8 March 2018~~-03-08~~|url-status=live}}</ref> production by USGS.}} historically second in production only to iron,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gregersen|first=Erik|title=Copper|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/copper|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|language=en|access-date=4 June 2019~~-06-04~~|archive-date=22 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622234613/https://www.britannica.com/science/copper|url-status=live}}</ref> making it the most produced [[non-ferrous metal]]. During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work,{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=165–166}} and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=85}} [[Sputnik 1|Earth's first artificial satellite]], launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent.<ref name="aluminiumleader" /> The [[aluminium can]] was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=135}}

[[File:Aluminium - world production trend.svg|thumb|upright=1.0|lang=en|World production of aluminium since 1900]]

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In 1812, British scientist [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html#contents|title=Quarterly Review Archive|last1=Cutmore|first1=Jonathan|website=Romantic Circles|publisher=University of Maryland|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301094017/http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html|archive-date=1 March 2017|url-status=live|date=February 2005|access-date=28 February 2017}}</ref> wrote an anonymous review of Davy's book, in which he proposed the name ''aluminium'' instead of ''aluminum'', which he thought had a "less classical sound".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Young|first1=Thomas|date=1812|title=Elements of Chemical Philosophy By Sir Humphry Davy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGykjvn032IC&pg=PA72|journal=[[Quarterly Review]]|volume=VIII|issue=15|page=72|isbn=978-0-217-88947-6|id=210|access-date=10 December 2009|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725043632/https://books.google.com/books?id=uGykjvn032IC&pg=PA72|url-status=live}}</ref> This name persisted: although the ''{{nowrap|-um}}'' spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' from the start.<ref name="Quinion2005" /> Most scientists throughout the world used ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' in the 19th century;<ref name="OEDaluminium-usage" /> and it was entrenched in several other European languages, such as [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], and [[Dutch language|Dutch]].{{Efn|Some European languages, like [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Italian language|Italian]], use a different suffix from the Latin ''-um''/''-ium'' to form a name of a metal, some, like [[Polish language|Polish]] or [[Czech language|Czech]], have a different base for the name of the element, and some, like [[Russian language|Russian]] or [[Greek language|Greek]], do not use the [[Latin script]] altogether.|name=|group=}} In 1828, an American lexicographer, [[Noah Webster]], entered only the ''aluminum'' spelling in his ''[[Webster's Dictionary#First edition 1828|American Dictionary of the English Language]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum|title=American Dictionary of the English Language|last=Webster|first=Noah|year=1828|entry=aluminum|author-link=Noah Webster|access-date=13 November 2017|archive-date=13 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113222259/http://webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 1830s, the ''{{nowrap|-um}}'' spelling gained usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science.<ref name="Quinion2005">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Js-PbsEjKSQC&pg=PT23|title=Port Out, Starboard Home: The Fascinating Stories We Tell About the words We Use|last=Quinion|first=Michael|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|year=2005|isbn=978-0-14-190904-2|pages=23–24}}</ref> In 1892, Hall used the ''{{nowrap|-um}}'' spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903. It is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally, but Hall preferred ''aluminum'' since its introduction because it resembled ''[[platinum]]'', the name of a prestigious metal.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kean|first=S.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qy40DwAAQBAJ&q=aluminium+aluminum+hall+typo+spelling&pg=PT120|title=The Disappearing Spoon: And Other True Tales of Rivalry, Adventure, and the History of the World from the Periodic Table of the Elements|date=2018|publisher=Little, Brown Books for Young Readers|isbn=978-0-316-38825-2|pages=|language=en|chapter=Elements as money|edition=Young Readers|access-date=14 January 2021|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415111942/https://books.google.com/books?id=qy40DwAAQBAJ&q=aluminium+aluminum+hall+typo+spelling&pg=PT120|url-status=live}}</ref> By 1890, both spellings had been common in the United States, the ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, ''aluminum'' had become twice as common as ''aluminium''; in the next decade, the ''{{nowrap|-um}}'' spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the [[American Chemical Society]] adopted this spelling.<ref name="OEDaluminium-usage" />

The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) adopted ''aluminium'' as the standard international name for the element in 1990.<ref name="Emsley2011" /> In 1993, they recognized ''aluminum'' as an acceptable variant;<ref name="Emsley2011">{{cite book|last=Emsley|first=John|author-link=John Emsley|title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&pg=PA24|year=2011|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-960563-7|pages=24–30|access-date=16 November 2017|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222070959/https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&pg=PA24|url-status=live}}</ref> the most recent [[IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry 2005|2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry]] also acknowledges this spelling.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222172055/http://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=~~2014-12-~~22 December 2014|editor1-first=Neil G.|editor1-last=Connelly|editor2-first=Ture|editor2-last=Damhus|title=Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations 2005|publisher=[[RSC Publishing]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-85404-438-2|page=249}}</ref> IUPAC official publications use the ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' spelling as primary, and they list both where it is appropriate.{{efn|For instance, see the November–December 2013 issue of ''Chemistry International'': in a table of (some) elements, the element is listed as "aluminium (aluminum)".<ref>{{cite journal

|title=Standard Atomic Weights Revised|author=|pages=17–18

|url=https://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2013/3506/nov13.pdf

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211093133/http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2013/3506/nov13.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=~~2014-02-~~11 February 2014

|journal=Chemistry International|volume=35|issue=6|issn=0193-6484}}</ref>}}

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The production of aluminium starts with the extraction of [[bauxite]] rock from the ground. The bauxite is processed and transformed using the [[Bayer process]] into [[alumina]], which is then processed using the [[Hall–Héroult process]], resulting in the final aluminium.

Aluminium production is highly energy-consuming, and so the producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive.<ref name="WMP">{{cite book|url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=1388|title=World Mineral Production 2003–2007|last1=Brown|first1=T.J.|date=2009|publisher=[[British Geological Survey]]|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-date=13 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713005219/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm%3Fid%3D1388|url-status=live}}</ref> Production of one kilogram of aluminium requires 7 kilograms of oil energy equivalent, as compared to 1.5 kilograms for steel and 2 kilograms for plastic.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lama |first=F. |title=Why the West Can't Win: From Bretton Woods to a Multipolar World |publisher=Clarity Press, Inc. |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-949762-74-7 |pages=19}}</ref> As of 2019, the world's largest [[Smelting|smelters]] of aluminium are located in China, India, Russia, Canada, and the United Arab Emirates,<ref name="usgs">{{Cite journal|title=USGS Minerals Information: Mineral Commodity Summaries|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-aluminum.pdf|website=minerals.usgs.gov|language=en|doi=10.3133/70194932|access-date=~~2020-12-~~17 December 2020|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122013648/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-aluminum.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> while China is by far the top producer of aluminium with a world share of ~~fifty-five percent~~55%.

According to the [[International Resource Panel]]'s [[Metal Stocks in Society report]], the global [[per capita]] stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics, etc.) is {{convert|80|kg|abbr=on}}. Much of this is in more-developed countries ({{convert|350|–|500|kg|abbr=on}} per capita) rather than less-developed countries ({{convert|35|kg|abbr=on}} per capita).<ref>{{cite report

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Recovery of the metal through [[recycling]] has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium [[beverage can]]s brought it to public awareness.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DtX1nbel49kC|title=Aluminum Recycling|last=Schlesinger|first=Mark|publisher=CRC Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8493-9662-5|page=248|access-date=25 June 2018|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215051211/https://books.google.com/books?id=DtX1nbel49kC|url-status=live}}</ref> Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as [[dross]] (ash-like oxide).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/benefits.htm|title=Benefits of Recycling|publisher=[[Ohio Department of Natural Resources]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030624162738/http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/benefits.htm|archive-date=24 June 2003|url-status=dead}}</ref> An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afsinc.org/files/best%20practice%20energy-schifo-radia-may%202004.pdf|title=Theoretical/Best Practice Energy Use in Metalcasting Operations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031072356/http://www.afsinc.org/files/best%20practice%20energy-schifo-radia-may%202004.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2013|url-status=dead~~|df=dmy-all~~|access-date=28 October 2013}}</ref>

White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be [[Aluminium dross recycling|extracted industrially]]. The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, [[hydrogen]], [[acetylene]], and [[ammonia]]), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.experts123.com/q/why-are-dross-saltcake-a-concern.html|title=Why are dross & saltcake a concern?|website=www.experts123.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114111346/http://www.experts123.com/q/why-are-dross-saltcake-a-concern.html|archive-date=14 November 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]] and [[concrete]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aggregain.wrap.org.uk/document.rm?id=1753|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100402111522/http://www.wrap.org.uk/downloads/BRE_Added_value_study_report.4ca28919.1753.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 April 2010~~-04-02~~|title=Added value of using new industrial waste streams as secondary aggregates in both concrete and asphalt|last1=Dunster|first1=A.M.|date=2005|publisher=[[Waste & Resources Action Programme]]|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

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* [[Aluminium phosphate]] is used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic, [[Wood pulp|pulp]] and paper products, [[cosmetics]], paints, [[varnish]]es, and in dental [[cement]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ueRsAAAAMAAJ&q=Aluminium+phosphate+used+in+the+manufacture+of+glass,+ceramic,+pulp+and+paper+products,+cosmetics,+paints,+varnishes,+and+in+dental+cement.|title=Occupational Skin Disease|date=1983|publisher=Grune & Stratton|isbn=978-0-8089-1494-5|language=en|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415120754/https://books.google.com/books?id=ueRsAAAAMAAJ&q=Aluminium+phosphate+used+in+the+manufacture+of+glass,+ceramic,+pulp+and+paper+products,+cosmetics,+paints,+varnishes,+and+in+dental+cement.|url-status=live}}</ref>

* [[Aluminium hydroxide]] is used as an [[antacid]], and mordant; it is used also in [[water]] purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the [[waterproofing]] of [[Textile|fabrics]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Fundamentals of pharmacology: a text for nurses and health professionals|author1=Galbraith, A|author2=Bullock, S|author3=Manias, E|author4=Hunt, B|author5=Richards, A|publisher=Pearson|year=1999|location=Harlow|pages=482}}</ref><ref name="papich">{{Cite book|title=Saunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs|last=Papich|first=Mark G.|date=2007|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|isbn=978-1-4160-2888-8|edition=2nd|location=St. Louis, Mo|pages=15–16|chapter=Aluminum Hydroxide and Aluminum Carbonate}}</ref>

* [[Lithium aluminium hydride]] is a powerful reducing agent used in [[organic chemistry]].<ref>{{Citation|last=Brown|first=Weldon G.|title=Reductions by Lithium Aluminum Hydride|date=~~2011-03-~~15 March 2011|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/0471264180.or006.10|work=Organic Reactions|pages=469–510|editor-last=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|place=Hoboken, NJ, USA|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|language=en|doi=10.1002/0471264180.or006.10|isbn=978-0-471-26418-7|access-date=~~2021-05-~~22 May 2021|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060736/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/0471264180.or006.10|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|year=2007|title=Lithium Aluminium Hydride|encyclopedia=SASOL Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology|publisher=New Africa Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wS3aWR5SO4C&pg=PA143|page=143|isbn=978-1-86928-384-1|author1=Gerrans, G.C.|author2=Hartmann-Petersen, P.|access-date=6 September 2017|archive-date=23 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823221511/https://books.google.com/books?id=1wS3aWR5SO4C&pg=PA143|url-status=live}}</ref>

* [[Organoaluminium chemistry|Organoaluminiums]] are used as [[Lewis acid]]s and co-catalysts.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=M. Witt|author2=H.W. Roesky|year=2000|title=Organoaluminum chemistry at the forefront of research and development|url=http://tejas.serc.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/feb252000/NMC2.pdf|journal=Curr. Sci.|volume=78|issue=4|pages=410|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006124655/http://tejas.serc.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/feb252000/NMC2.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2014~~|df=dmy-all~~}}</ref>

* [[Methylaluminoxane]] is a co-catalyst for [[Ziegler–Natta]] [[olefin]] [[polymerization]] to produce [[vinyl polymer]]s such as [[polyethene]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=A. Andresen|author2=H.G. Cordes|author3=J. Herwig|author4=W. Kaminsky|author5=A. Merck|author6=R. Mottweiler|author7=J. Pein|author8=H. Sinn|author9=H.J. Vollmer|year=1976|title=Halogen-free Soluble Ziegler-Catalysts for the Polymerization of Ethylene|journal=[[Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.]]|volume=15|issue=10|pages=630–632|doi=10.1002/anie.197606301}}</ref>

* Aqueous aluminium ions (such as aqueous aluminium sulfate) are used to treat against fish parasites such as ''[[Gyrodactylus salaris]]''.<ref name="AasKlemetsen2011">{{cite book|last1=Aas|first1=Øystein|last2=Klemetsen|first2=Anders|last3=Einum|first3=Sigurd|last4=Skurdal|first4=Jostein|display-authors=3|title=Atlantic Salmon Ecology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9lMZnUdUGZUC&pg=PA240|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-4819-4|page=240|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221202430/https://books.google.com/books?id=9lMZnUdUGZUC&pg=PA240|url-status=live}}</ref>

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|title=Environmental Applications. Part I. Common Forms of the Elements in Water

|publisher=Western Oregon University|access-date=30 September 2019

|archive-date=11 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211082553/http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/natwater.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Aluminium sulfate]] has an [[Median lethal dose|LD50]] of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 435 grams (about one pound) for a {{convert|70|kg|abbr=on}} ~~person~~mouse.~~<ref name="Ullmann" />~~

=== Toxicity ===

Aluminium is classified as a non-carcinogen by the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]].<ref name="Piero3">{{cite journal|last=Dolara|first=Piero|date=21 July 2014|title=Occurrence, exposure, effects, recommended intake and possible dietary use of selected trace compounds (aluminium, bismuth, cobalt, gold, lithium, nickel, silver)|journal=International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition|volume=65|issue=8|pages=911–924|doi=10.3109/09637486.2014.937801|issn=1465-3478|pmid=25045935|s2cid=43779869}}</ref>{{efn|While aluminium per se is not carcinogenic, Söderberg aluminium production is, as is noted by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]],<ref name="worldcat">{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11527472|title=Polynuclear aromatic compounds. part 3, Industrial exposures in aluminium production, coal gasification, coke production, and iron and steel founding.|date=1984|publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |isbn=92-832-1534-6|oclc=11527472|pages=51–59|access-date=7 January 2021|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060739/https://www.worldcat.org/title/polynuclear-aromatic-compounds-part-3-industrial-exposures-in-aluminium-production-coal-gasification-coke-production-and-iron-and-steel-founding/oclc/11527472|url-status=live}}</ref> likely due to exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wesdock|first1=J. C.|last2=Arnold|first2=I. M. F.|date=2014|title=Occupational and Environmental Health in the Aluminum Industry|url= |journal=Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine|language=en-US|volume=56|issue=5 Suppl|pages=S5–S11|doi=10.1097/JOM.0000000000000071|pmid=24806726|pmc=4131940|issn=1076-2752}}</ref>}} A review published in 1988 said that there was little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adult,<ref name="gitelman88">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wRnOytsi8boC&pg=PA90 |title=Physiology of Aluminum in Man |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519101650/https://books.google.com/books?id=wRnOytsi8boC&pg=PA90|archive-date=19 May 2016 |series=Aluminum and Health |publisher=CRC Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-8247-8026-4 |page=90 }}</ref> and a 2014 multi-element toxicology review was unable to find deleterious effects of aluminium consumed in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of [[body weight|body mass]].<ref name="Piero3" /> Most aluminium consumed will leave the body in feces; most of the small part of it that enters the bloodstream, will be excreted via urine;<ref name="atsdr">{{Cite web|url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=1076&tid=34|title= Public Health Statement: Aluminum|website=ATSDR |language=en|access-date=~~2018-07-~~18 July 2018|archive-date=12 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212212014/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=1076&tid=34|url-status=live}}</ref> nevertheless some aluminium does pass the blood-brain barrier and is lodged preferentially in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.<ref name="xu92">{{cite journal |pmid=1302300|year=1992|last1=Xu|first1=N.|last2=Majidi|first2=V.|last3=Markesbery|first3=W. R.|last4=Ehmann|first4=W. D.|title=Brain aluminum in Alzheimer's disease using an improved GFAAS method|journal=Neurotoxicology|volume=13|issue=4|pages=735–743}}</ref><ref name="yumoto09">{{cite journal

|title=Demonstration of aluminum in amyloid fibers in the cores of senile plaques in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease|year=2009

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|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221033817/https://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/cotpnlwpirv2.pdf}}</ref>

Aluminium has been suspected of being a possible cause of [[Alzheimer's disease]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tomljenovic|first=Lucija|date=~~2011-03-~~21 March 2011|title=Aluminum and Alzheimer's Disease: After a Century of Controversy, Is there a Plausible Link?|url=https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2010-101494|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=23|issue=4|pages=567–598|doi=10.3233/JAD-2010-101494|pmid=21157018|access-date=11 June 2021|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060821/https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad101494|url-status=live}}</ref> but research into this for over 40 years has found, {{as of|2018|lc=yes}}, no good evidence of causal effect.<ref>{{cite web

|title=Aluminum and dementia: Is there a link?|date=24 August 2018

|publisher=Alzheimer Society Canada

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</ref> A small percentage of people<ref name="BinghamCohrssen2012">{{cite book

|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1mk3lFVtBSQC&pg=PA244|title=Patty's Toxicology, 6 Volume Set|last1=Bingham|first1=Eula|last2=Cohrssen|first2=Barbara|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-41081-3|page=244|access-date=23 July 2018|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220172223/https://books.google.com/books?id=1mk3lFVtBSQC&pg=PA244|url-status=live}}</ref> have contact [[allergy|allergies]] to aluminium and experience itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms upon contact with products containing aluminium.<ref>{{Cite news

|language=en-US|archive-date=23 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723152243/https://allergy-symptoms.org/aluminum-allergy/|url-status=live}}</ref>

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=== Exposure routes ===

Food is the main source of aluminium. Drinking water contains more aluminium than solid food;<ref name="Piero3" /> however, aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.<ref name="Yokel2008">{{cite journal|author=Yokel R.A.|author2=Hicks C.L.|author3=Florence R.L.|date=2008|title=Aluminum bioavailability from basic sodium aluminum phosphate, an approved food additive emulsifying agent, incorporated in cheese|journal=[[Food and Chemical Toxicology]]|volume=46|issue=6|pages=2261–2266|doi=10.1016/j.fct.2008.03.004|pmc=2449821|pmid=18436363}}</ref> Major sources of human oral exposure to aluminium include food (due to its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (due to its use in municipal water treatment), and aluminium-containing medications (particularly antacid/antiulcer and buffered aspirin formulations).<ref>{{Cite report|author=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services]]|url=http://abcmt.org/tp22.pdf|title=Toxicological profile for aluminum|date=1999|access-date=3 August 2018~~-08-03~~|archive-date=9 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509192819/http://abcmt.org/tp22.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Dietary exposure in Europeans averages to 0.2–1.5 mg/kg/week but can be as high as 2.3 mg/kg/week.<ref name="Piero3" /> Higher exposure levels of aluminium are mostly limited to miners, aluminium production workers, and [[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]] patients.<ref name="enviroliteracy">{{Cite news|url=https://enviroliteracy.org/special-features/its-element-ary/aluminum/|title=Aluminum|work=The Environmental Literacy Council|language=en-US|access-date=~~2018-07-~~29 July 2018|archive-date=27 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027112722/https://enviroliteracy.org/special-features/its-element-ary/aluminum/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Consumption of [[antacid]]s, antiperspirants, [[vaccine]]s, and cosmetics provide possible routes of exposure.<ref name="ChenThyssen2018">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKlVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA333|title=Metal Allergy: From Dermatitis to Implant and Device Failure|last1=Chen|first1=Jennifer K.|last2=Thyssen|first2=Jacob P.|publisher=Springer|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-58503-1|page=333|access-date=23 July 2018|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226141303/https://books.google.com/books?id=hKlVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA333|url-status=live}}</ref> Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Slanina, P.|last2=French|first2=W.|last3=Ekström|first3=L.G.|last4=Lööf|first4=L.|last5=Slorach|first5=S.|last6=Cedergren|first6=A.|date=1986|title=Dietary citric acid enhances absorption of aluminum in antacids|journal=Clinical Chemistry|volume=32|issue=3|pages=539–541|pmid=3948402|doi=10.1093/clinchem/32.3.539}}</ref> and [[maltol]] has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Van Ginkel|first1=M.F.|last2=Van Der Voet|first2=G.B.|last3=D'haese|first3=P.C.|last4=De Broe|first4=M.E.|last5=De Wolff|first5=F.A.|date=1993|title=Effect of citric acid and maltol on the accumulation of aluminum in rat brain and bone|journal=The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine|volume=121|issue=3|pages=453–460|pmid=8445293}}</ref>

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=== Treatment ===

In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium, the only treatment is [[deferoxamine mesylate]] which may be given to help eliminate aluminium from the body by [[chelation therapy]].<ref name="Toxicity">{{Cite web|url=http://www.arltma.com/Articles/AlumToxDoc.htm|title=ARL: Aluminum Toxicity|website=www.arltma.com|access-date=~~2018-07-~~24 July 2018|archive-date=31 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831154809/http://www.arltma.com/Articles/AlumToxDoc.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[http://www.med.nyu.edu/content?ChunkIID=164929 Aluminum Toxicity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203055539/http://www.med.nyu.edu/content?ChunkIID=164929|date=3 February 2014}} from [[NYU Langone Medical Center]]. Last reviewed November 2012 by Igor Puzanov, MD</ref> However, this should be applied with caution as this reduces not only aluminium body levels, but also those of other metals such as copper or iron.<ref name="Toxicity" />

==Environmental effects==

[[File:Luftaufnahmen Nordseekueste 2012-05-by-RaBoe-478.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|"[[Bauxite tailings]]" storage facility in [[Stade]], Germany. The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.]]
High levels of aluminium occur near mining sites; small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at ~~the~~ coal-fired power plants or [[Incineration|incinerators]].<ref name="atsdr"/> Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time.<ref name="atsdr" />

Acidic [[precipitation]] is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminium from natural sources<ref name="Piero3" /> and the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminium;<ref name="RosselandEldhuset1990">{{cite journal|last1=Rosseland|first1=B.O.|last2=Eldhuset|first2=T.D.|last3=Staurnes|first3=M.|year=1990|title=Environmental effects of aluminium|journal=Environmental Geochemistry and Health|volume=12|issue=1–2|pages=17–27|doi=10.1007/BF01734045|pmid=24202562|bibcode=1990EnvGH..12...17R |s2cid=23714684|issn=0269-4042}}</ref> however, the main factor of presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air.<ref name="Piero3" />

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* {{cite book |last=King |first=R. B. |date=1995 |title=Inorganic Chemistry of Main Group Elements |publisher=Wiley-VCH |isbn=978-0-471-18602-1}}

* {{cite book |editor-last=Lide|editor-first=D. R.|title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics|url=https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide|url-access=registration|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|date=2004|edition=84|isbn=978-0-8493-0566-5}}

* {{cite report |last=Nappi |first=C. |year=2013 |title=The global aluminium industry 40 years from 1972 |publisher=International Aluminium Institute |url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mclaughlin1/docs/nappi.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mclaughlin1/docs/nappi.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022~~-10-09~~ |url-status=live}}

* {{cite book |last=Richards |first=J. W. |year=1896 |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924003633751/cu31924003633751_djvu.txt |title=Aluminium: Its history, occurrence, properties, metallurgy and applications, including its alloys |edition=3 |publisher=Henry Carey Baird & Co.}}

* {{cite book|last=Schmitz|first=C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WvT2OEf8DskC|title=Handbook of Aluminium Recycling|date=2006|publisher=Vulkan-Verlag GmbH|isbn=978-3-8027-2936-2|language=en}}

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* [https://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/013.htm Aluminium] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham)

* [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp22.pdf Toxicological Profile for Aluminum] (PDF) (September 2008) – 357-page report from the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]], Public Health Service, [[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]]

* [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html Aluminum] entry (last reviewed ~~October~~ 30, October 2019) in the ''NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards'' published by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]]'s [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]]

* [https://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=aluminum&months=300 Current and historical prices] (1998–present) for aluminum [[futures contract|futures]] on the global [[commodities market]]

* {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.38661|name=Aluminum}}