Ancient history: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{Human history}}

'''Ancient history''' is a [[time period]] from the [[History of writing|beginning of writing]] and recorded [[human history]] through [[late antiquity]]. The span of [[recorded history]] is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with the development of [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] [[cuneiform]] script. andAncient history covers all continents inhabited by humans in the period 3000 BC{{Snd}}AD 500, continuingending untilwith the [[Early Muslim conquests|expansion of]] [[Islam]] in [[late antiquity]].<ref Ancientname=weller-stearns>{{cite historybook covers|editor=R. allCharles continentsWeller inhabited|title=21st-Century byNarratives humansof World History: Global and Multidisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Palgrave |chapter=Periodization in theWorld periodHistory: 3000Challenges BC{{Snd}}ADand 750Opportunities |last=Stearns |first=Peter N. |author-link=Peter N. Stearns |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-319-62077-0}}</ref> The [[three-age system]] periodizes ancient history into the [[Stone Age]], the [[Bronze Age]], and the [[Iron Age]], with recorded history generally considered to begin with the Bronze Age. The start and end of the three ages vary between world regions. In many regions the Bronze Age is generally considered to begin a few centuries prior to 3000 BC, while the end of the Iron Age varies from the early first millennium BC in some regions to the late first millennium AD in others.

During the time period of ancient history, the [[world population]] was already [[Exponential growth|exponentially increasing]] due to the [[Neolithic Revolution]], which was in full progress. While in 10,000 BC, the world population stood at 2 million, it rose to 45 million by 3,0003000 BC. By the Iron Age in 1000 BC, the population had risen to 72 million. By the end of the ancient period in AD 500, the world population is thought to have stood at 209 million. In 10,500 years, the world population increased by 100 times.<ref name="mnp.nl">[http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0959683609356587 Data] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191210060052/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0959683609356587 |date=10 December 2019 }} from [http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/index.html History Database of the Global Environment.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227200550/http://themasites.pbl.nl/tridion/en/themasites/hyde/index.html |date=27 February 2018 }} K. Klein Goldewijk, A. Beusen and P. Janssen, "HYDE 3.1: Long-term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way", from table on p. 2, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.</ref>

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Evidence for [[agriculture]] emerges in about 9000 BC in what is now eastern [[Turkey]] and spread through the [[Fertile Crescent]].{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=45–46}} Settlement at [[Göbekli Tepe]] began around 9500 BC and may have the world's oldest temple.{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=44}} The [[Nile River Valley]] has evidence of [[sorghum]] and [[millet]] cultivation starting around 8000 BC and agricultural use of [[Yam (vegetable)|yam]]s in Western Africa perhaps dates to the same time period. Cultivation of millet, [[rice]], and [[legume]]s began around 7000 BC in [[China]]. [[Taro]] cultivation in [[New Guinea]] dates to about 7000 BC also with [[Cucurbita|squash]] cultivation in [[Mesoamerica]] perhaps sharing that date.{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=45–46}} [[Animal domestication]] began with the [[domestication of dogs]], which dates to at least 15,000 years ago, and perhaps even earlier. [[History of the domestic sheep|Sheep]] and [[Evolution of domestic goats|goats]] were domesticated around 9000 BC in the Fertile Crescent, alongside the first evidence for agriculture. Other animals, such as [[pigs]] and [[poultry]], were later domesticated and used as food sources.{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=48–49}} [[Cattle]] and [[water buffalo]] were domesticated around 7000 BC and [[Domestication of the horse|horses]], [[donkey]]s, and [[camel]]s were domesticated by about 4000 BC. All of these animals were used not only for food, but to carry and pull people and loads, greatly increasing human ability to do work. The invention of the simple [[plough]] by 6000 BC further increased agricultural efficiency.{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=54}}

Metal use in the form of hammered [[copper]] items predates the discovery of [[smelting]] of [[copper ore]]s, which happened around 6000 BC in western Asia and independently in eastern Asia before 2000 BC. [[Gold]] and [[silver]] use dates to between 6000 and 5000 BC. How to make [[metal alloy|Alloy]]s metallurgy began with [[bronze]] in about 3500 BC in [[Mesopotamia]] and was developed independently in China by 2000 BC.{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=45}} [[Pottery]] developed independently throughout the world,{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=55–56}} with fired pots appearing first among the [[Jomon]] of Japan and in West Africa at [[Mali]].{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|p=38}} Sometime between 5000 and 4000 BC the [[potter's wheel]] was invented.{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=55–56}} By 3000 BC,{{sfn|Roberts|Westad|2013|pp=59–60}} the pottery wheel was adapted into [[wheeled vehicle]]s which could be used to carry loads further and easier than with human or animal power alone.{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=55–56}}

[[Writing]] developed separately in five different locations in human history: Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, China, and Mesoamerica.{{sfn|Parker|2017|pp=60–61}} By 3400 BC, "proto-literate" [[cuneiform]] spread in the Middle East.{{sfn|Diamond|1999|p=218}} Egypt developed its own system of [[hieroglyph]]s by about 3200 BC.{{sfn|Parker|2017|pp=60–61}} By 2800 BC the [[Indus Valley civilization]] had developed its [[Indus script]], which remains undeciphered.{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|p=58}} [[Chinese characters|Chinese Characters]] were independently developed in China during the [[Shang Dynastydynasty]] in the form of the [[Oracle bone script|Oracle Bone Script]] dating to the period 1600 to 1100 BC.{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|pp=60–61}} Writing in Mesoamerica dates to 600 BC with the [[Zapotec civilization]].{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|p=63}}

==History by region==

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The ancient Near East is considered the [[cradle of civilization]].{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|pp=54–55}} It was the first to practice intensive year-round agriculture;{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} created one of the first [[history of writing|coherent writing system]]s,{{sfn|Parker|2017|pp=60–61}} invented the [[potter's wheel]] and then the vehicular [[wheel]],{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|pp=55–56}} created the first [[centralized government]]s,{{sfn|Parker|2017|pp=54–55}} [[law code]]s{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=74}} and empires,{{sfn|Parker|2017|pp=55–56}} as well as displaying [[social stratification]],{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|pp=54–55}} slavery,{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=74}} and organized warfare.{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=73}} It began the study of the stars and the sciences of astronomy and mathematics.{{sfn|Roberts|Westad|2013|p=65}}

[[File:Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia c. 1450 BC.png|thumb|The core territory of 15th century BC [[Assyria]], with its two major cities [[Assur]] and [[Nineveh]], was upstream of [[Babylonia]] and downstream of the states of [[Mitanni]] and [[Hittite Empire|Hatti]].|left|upright=1.3]]▼

====Mesopotamia====

{{Further|Mesopotamia|History of Iraq}}

▲[[File:Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia c. 1450 BC.png|thumb|The core territory of 15th century BC [[Assyria]], with its two major cities [[Assur]] and [[Nineveh]], was upstream of [[Babylonia]] and downstream of the states of [[Mitanni]] and [[Hittite Empire|Hatti]].|left|upright=1.3]]

Mesopotamia is the site of some of the earliest known [[Civilization|civilisations]] in the world.{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=54}} Agricultural communities emerged in the area with the [[Halaf culture]] around 8000 BC and continued to expand through the [[Ubaid period]] around 6000 BC.{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|p=54}} Cities began in the [[Uruk period]] (4000–3100 BC) and expanded during the [[Jemdet Nasr period|Jemdet Nasr]] (3100–2900 BC) and [[Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)|Early Dynastic]] (2900–2350 BC) periods.{{sfn|Emberling|2015|pp=256–257}} The surplus of storable foodstuffs created by this economy allowed the population to settle in one place instead of migrating after crops and herds. It also allowed for a much greater population density, and in turn required an extensive labour force and division of labour.{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|p=38}} This organization led to the necessity of record keeping and the development of writing.{{sfn|Wiesner-Hanks|2015|p=79-80}}

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===Africa===

====Afro-Asiatic Africa====

=====Carthage=====

{{Main|Carthage}}

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=====Egypt=====

{{Main|Ancient Egypt}}

[[File:Egypt.Giza.Sphinx.01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Khafre's Pyramid]] ([[Fourth dynasty of Egypt|4th dynasty]]) and [[Great Sphinx of Giza]] ({{circa|2500 BC}} or perhaps earlier)|left]]

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====Niger-Congo Africa====

=====Nok culture=====

{{Main|Nok culture}}

[[File:Nok sculpture of a sitted person-70.1998.11.1-DSC00322-black.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Nok sculpture of a seated person]]

The Nok culture appeared in [[Nigeria]] around 1000 BC and mysteriously vanished around AD 200. The civilisation's [[social system]] is thought to have been highly advanced. The Nok civilisation was considered to be the earliest sub-Saharan producer of life-sized Terracotta which have been discovered by archaeologists. The Nok also used [[Smelting|iron smelting]] that may have been independently developed.{{sfn|Shaw|1978}}

====Sahel====

=====Djenné-Djenno=====

{{Main|Djenné-Djenno}}

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===South Asia===

{{Main|History of South Asia|History of India|Ancient India}}

[[File:TNMStandingBuddha.jpg|thumb|left|[[Standing Buddha from Gandhara (Tokyo)|Standing Buddha from Gandhara]], 1st century AD.]]

[[File:Maurya Dynasty in 265 BCE.jpg|thumb|rightupright=1.5|A political map of the [[Mauryan Empire]], including notable cities, such as the capital [[Pataliputra]], and site of the Buddha's enlightenment.|upright=1.5]]▼

[[Paleolithic|Paleolithic tools]] have been discovered in India dating to 200,000 years ago, and neolithic sites are known from near the [[Indus Valley]] dating to around 8000 BC.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=87}} Agriculture began in the Indus Valley around 7000 BC,{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=87}} and reached the [[Ganges Valley]] by 3000 BC.{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=43}} [[Barley]], [[cotton]], and wheat were grown and the population had domesticated cattle, goats, and sheep.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=87}}

The [[Indus Valley Civilisation|Indus Valley civilization]] developed around 3000 BC in the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra]] river valleys of eastern [[Afghanistan]], Pakistan, and western India. Another name for this civilisation is Harappan,{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|p=58}} after the first of its cities to be excavated, [[Harappa]] in the Pakistani province of [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]].{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} Harappan civilization grew out of the earlier agricultural communities as they evolved into cities. These communities created and traded jewelry, figurines, and seals that appear widely scattered throughout Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Iran.{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=74}} [[Chicken]]s were domesticated in addition to the earlier crops and animals.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=89}} They developed their own writing system, the [[Indus Valley script]], which is still mostly undeciphered.{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|p=58}} The exact structure of society and the way the cities were governed is not known.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=89}} By about 1600 BC, the Indus Valley culture had abandoned many of their cities, including [[Mohenjo-Daro]].{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=75}} The exact reason for this decline is not known.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=92}}▼

▲[[File:Maurya Dynasty in 265 BCE.jpg|thumb|right|A political map of the [[Mauryan Empire]], including notable cities, such as the capital [[Pataliputra]], and site of the Buddha's enlightenment.|upright=1.5]]

▲The Indus Valley civilization developed around 3000 BC in the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra]] river valleys of eastern [[Afghanistan]], Pakistan, and western India. Another name for this civilisation is Harappan,{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|p=58}} after the first of its cities to be excavated, [[Harappa]] in the Pakistani province of [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]].{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} Harappan civilization grew out of the earlier agricultural communities as they evolved into cities. These communities created and traded jewelry, figurines, and seals that appear widely scattered throughout Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, and Iran.{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=74}} [[Chicken]]s were domesticated in addition to the earlier crops and animals.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=89}} They developed their own writing system, the [[Indus Valley script]], which is still mostly undeciphered.{{sfn|Hart-Davis|2012|p=58}} The exact structure of society and the way the cities were governed is not known.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=89}} By about 1600 BC, the Indus Valley culture had abandoned many of their cities, including [[Mohenjo-Daro]].{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=75}} The exact reason for this decline is not known.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=92}}

Indo-European speaking peoples began to spread into India about 1500 BC. The ''[[Rigveda]]'', in [[Sanskrit]], dates to this period and begins a period often known as the [[Vedic period]].{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=94}} Between 1500 and 500 BC these peoples spread throughout most of India and had begun to found small cities.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|p=95}} Vedic society was characterized by the ''[[Varna (Hinduism)|varna]]'' system which divided society into four broad castes, which were later elaborated. By the end of the Vedic period, this way of organizing society had become central to Indian society.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|pp=96–97}} Religion in the late Vedic period was evolving into [[Hinduism]], which spread throughout Southeast Asia.{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=122}} [[Siddhartha Gautama]], born around 560 BC in northern India, went on to found a new religion based on his ascetic life – [[Buddhism]]. This faith also spread throughout Eastern and Southeastern Asia after his death.{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=123}} This period also saw the composition of the epics ''[[Ramayana]]'' and ''[[Mahabharata]]''.{{sfn|Parker|2017|p=122}}

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===Southeast Asia & Oceania===

{{Main|Peopling of Southeast Asia|History of Southeast Asia}}

The [[Neolithic]] period of [[Southeast Asia]] was characterized by several migrations into [[Mainland Southeast Asia|Mainland]] and [[Island Southeast Asia]] from southern [[China]] by [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]], [[Austroasiatic]], [[Kra-Dai]] and [[Hmong-Mien]]-speakers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0b-6wpalR40C&pg=PA102|page=102|title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Volume One, Part One |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66369-4 |last1=Tarling |first1=Nicholas |year=1999 }}</ref>

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====Mainland Southeast Asia====

[[File:Trong dong Dong Son.jpg|thumb|right|[[Dong Son drum|Đông Sơn drum]]]]

The earliest known evidence of copper and bronze production in Southeast Asia was found at [[Ban Chiang]] in north-east Thailand and among the [[Phung Nguyen culture|Phùng Nguyên culture]] of northern Vietnam around 2000&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Higham|first1=Charles|last2=Higham|first2=Thomas|last3=Ciarla|first3=Roberto|last4=Douka|first4=Katerina|last5=Kijngam|first5=Amphan|last6=Rispoli|first6=Fiorella|title=The Origins of the Bronze Age of Southeast Asia|journal=Journal of World Prehistory|date=10 December 2011|volume=24|issue=4|pages=227–274|doi=10.1007/s10963-011-9054-6|s2cid=162300712|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257607857|access-date=11 February 2017|via=Researchgate.net}}</ref>

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{{Main|Austronesian peoples}}

[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific.svg|upright=1.75|thumb|Map showing the migration of the Austronesians from Taiwan]]

Around 3000 to 1500 BCE, a large-scale migration of [[Austronesians]], known as the [[Austronesian expansion]] began from [[Taiwan]]. [[Population growth]] primarily fueled this migration. These first settlers settled in northern [[Luzon]], in the archipelago of the [[Philippines]], intermingling with the earlier [[Australo-Melanesian]] population who had inhabited the islands since about 23,000 years earlier. Over the next thousand years, Austronesian peoples migrated southeast to the rest of the Philippines, and into the islands of the [[Celebes Sea]] and Borneo.<ref name="Gray-et-al2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gray RD, Drummond AJ, Greenhill SJ | s2cid = 29838345 | title = Language phylogenies reveal expansion pulses and pauses in Pacific settlement | journal = Science | volume = 323 | issue = 5913 | pages = 479–83 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19164742 | doi = 10.1126/science.1166858 | bibcode = 2009Sci...323..479G }}</ref><ref name="Pawley2002">{{cite book | vauthors = Pawley A |chapter=The Austronesian dispersal: languages, technologies and people |editor1-first=Peter S. |editor1-last=Bellwood |editor2-first=Colin |editor2-last=Renfrew |title=Examining the farming/language dispersal hypothesis |publisher=McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-902937-20-5 |pages=251–273 }}</ref> From southwestern Borneo, Austronesians spread further west in a single migration event to both [[Sumatra]] and the coastal regions of southern Vietnam, becoming the ancestors of the speakers of the [[Malayic languages|Malayic]] and [[Chamic languages|Chamic]] branches of the Austronesian language family.<ref name="Blust2019">{{cite journal |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |title=The Austronesian Homeland and Dispersal |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |date=14 January 2019 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=417–434 |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-012440|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Soon after reaching the Philippines, Austronesians colonized the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] by 1500 BCE or even earlier, becoming the first humans to reach [[Remote Oceania]]. The [[Chamorro people|Chamorro]] migration was also unique in that it was the only Austronesian migration to the Pacific Islands to successfully retain rice cultivation. [[Palau]] and [[Yap]] were settled by separate voyages by 1000 BCE.<ref name="Blust2019"/><ref name="Gray-et-al2009"/><ref name="Pawley2002"/>

Another important migration branch was by the [[Lapita culture]], which rapidly spread into the islands off the coast of northern [[New Guinea]] and into the [[Solomon Islands]] and other parts of coastal New Guinea and [[Island Melanesia]] by 1200 BCE. They reached the islands of [[Fiji]], [[Samoa]], and [[Tonga]] by around 900 to 800 BCE. This remained the furthest extent of the Austronesian expansion into Polynesia until around 700 CE, when there was another surge of island colonization. It reached the [[Cook Islands]], [[Tahiti]], and the [[Marquesas]] by 700 CE; [[Hawaii]] by 900 CE; [[Rapa Nui]] by 1000 CE; and New Zealand by 1200 CE.<ref name="Bellwood 1991">{{cite journal |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |title=The Austronesian Dispersal and the Origin of Languages |journal=Scientific American |date=1991 |volume=265 |issue=1 |pages=88–93 |jstor=24936983|bibcode=1991SciAm.265a..88B |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0791-88 }}</ref><ref name="gibbons">{{cite web |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title='Game-changing' study suggests first Polynesians voyaged all the way from East Asia |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/game-changing-study-suggests-first-polynesians-voyaged-all-way-east-asia |website=Science |access-date=23 March 2019 |archive-date=13 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190413063912/https://www.sciencemag.org/news/2016/10/game-changing-study-suggests-first-polynesians-voyaged-all-way-east-asia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Freeman"/> For a few centuries, the Polynesian islands were connected by bidirectional long-distance sailing, with the exception of Rapa Nui, which had limited further contact due to its isolated geographical location.<ref name="Blust2019"/> Island groups like the [[Pitcairns]], the [[Kermadec Islands]], and the [[Norfolk Islands]] were also formerly settled by Austronesians but later abandoned.<ref name="Freeman">{{cite book |last1=Freeman |first1=Donald B. |title=The Pacific |date=2013 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781136604157 |pages=54–57}}</ref> There is also putative evidence, based in the spread of the [[sweet potato]], that Austronesians may have reached South America from Polynesia, where they might have traded with the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]].<ref name="Van Tilburg 1994">Van Tilburg, Jo Anne. 1994. ''Easter Island: Archaeology, Ecology and Culture.'' Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Langdon, Robert. The Bamboo Raft as a Key to the Introduction of the Sweet Potato in Prehistoric Polynesia, ''The Journal of Pacific History'', Vol. 36, No. 1, 2001</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">Langdon, Robert. The Bamboo Raft as a Key to the Introduction of the Sweet Potato in Prehistoric Polynesia, ''The Journal of Pacific History'', Vol. 36, No. 1, 2001</ref>

[[File:Austronesian maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.png|thumb|left|[[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] [[Spice trade|proto-historic]] and historic (Maritime Silk Road) maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean<ref name="Manguin2016">{{cite book|first1=Pierre-Yves |last1=Manguin|editor1-first=Gwyn |editor1-last=Campbell|title =Early Exchange between Africa and the Wider Indian Ocean World |chapter =Austronesian Shipping in the Indian Ocean: From Outrigger Boats to Trading Ships|publisher =Palgrave Macmillan|year =2016|pages=51–76|isbn =9783319338224|chapter-url =https://books.google.com/books?id=XsvDDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA50}}</ref>]]

[[File:Srivijaya Empire.svg|thumb|The [[thalassocratic]] [[Srivijaya]] empire at its maximum extent in the 8th to 11th centuries, showing their control of the straits of [[Strait of Malacca|Malacca]] and [[Sunda Strait|Sunda]]]]

Austronesians established prehistoric [[Austronesian maritime trade network|maritime trade networks]] in Island Southeast Asia, including the [[Maritime Jade Road]], a jade trade network, in Southeast Asia which existed in [[Taiwan]] and the [[Philippines]] for 3,000 years from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. The trade was established by links between the indigenous peoples of Taiwan and the Philippines, and later included parts of Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and other areas in Southeast Asia (known as the [[Sa Huỳnh culture|Sa Huynh]]-[[Kalanay Cave|Kalanay]] Interaction Sphere). [[Lingling-o]] artifacts are one of the notable archeological finds originating from the Maritime Jade Road.<ref name="Tsang2000">{{cite journal |last1=Tsang |first1=Cheng-hwa |title=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2000 |volume=20 |pages=153–158 |doi=10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751 |doi-broken-date=2024-04-12 |issn=1835-1794}}</ref><ref name="Turton2021">{{cite news |last1=Turton |first1= M. |title=Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south |url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 |access-date=24 December 2021 |work=Taipei Times |date=17 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Everington 2017a">{{cite news |last1=Everington |first1= K. |title=Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar |url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3247203 |access-date=24 December 2021|work=Taiwan News |date=6 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="BellwoodHung2011">{{cite book |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |last2=Hung |first2=H. |last3=Lizuka |first3=Yoshiyuki |chapter=Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction |year=2011 |editor-last=Benitez-Johannot |editor-first=P. |title=Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde |publisher=ArtPostAsia |isbn=978-971-94292-0-3}}</ref> During the operation of the Maritime Jade Road, the Austronesian [[spice trade]] networks were also established by [[Islander Southeast Asians]] with [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Southern India]] by around 1000 to 600 BCE.<ref name="Bellina2014">{{cite book|first1=Bérénice|last1= Bellina |editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Guy|title =Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century|chapter =Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road|publisher =Yale University Press|year =2014|pages=22–25|isbn =9781588395245|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0415100540}}</ref><ref name="Herrera"/>▼

▲Austronesians established prehistoric [[Austronesian maritime trade network|maritime trade networks]] in Island Southeast Asia, including the [[Maritime Jade Road]], a jade trade network, in Southeast Asia which existed in [[Taiwan]] and the [[Philippines]] for 3,000 years from 2000 BCE to 1000 CE. The trade was established by links between the indigenous peoples of Taiwan and the Philippines, and later included parts of Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, and other areas in Southeast Asia (known as the [[Sa Huỳnh culture|Sa Huynh]]-[[Kalanay Cave|Kalanay]] Interaction Sphere). [[Lingling-o]] artifacts are one of the notable archeological finds originating from the Maritime Jade Road.<ref name="Tsang2000">{{cite journal |last1=Tsang |first1=Cheng-hwa |title=Recent advances in the Iron Age archaeology of Taiwan |journal=Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association |date=2000 |volume=20 |pages=153–158 |doi=10.7152/bippa.v20i0.11751 |doi-broken-date=2024-04-12 |issn=1835-1794}}</ref><ref name="Turton2021">{{cite news |last1=Turton |first1= M. |title=Notes from central Taiwan: Our brother to the south |url=https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/feat/archives/2021/05/17/2003757527 |access-date=24 December 2021 |work=Taipei Times |date=17 May 2021}}</ref><ref name="Everington 2017a">{{cite news |last1=Everington |first1= K. |title=Birthplace of Austronesians is Taiwan, capital was Taitung: Scholar |url=https://www.taiwannews.com.tw/en/news/3247203 |access-date=24 December 2021|work=Taiwan News |date=6 September 2017}}</ref><ref name="BellwoodHung2011">{{cite book |last1=Bellwood |first1=Peter |last2=Hung |first2=H. |last3=Lizuka |first3=Yoshiyuki |chapter=Taiwan Jade in the Philippines: 3,000 Years of Trade and Long-distance Interaction |year=2011 |editor-last=Benitez-Johannot |editor-first=P. |title=Paths of Origins: The Austronesian Heritage in the Collections of the National Museum of the Philippines, the Museum Nasional Indonesia, and the Netherlands Rijksmuseum voor Volkenkunde |publisher=ArtPostAsia |isbn=978-971-94292-0-3}}</ref> During the operation of the Maritime Jade Road, the Austronesian [[spice trade]] networks were also established by [[Islander Southeast Asians]] with [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Southern India]] by around 1000 to 600 BCE.<ref name="Bellina2014">{{cite book|first1=Bérénice|last1= Bellina |editor1-first=John|editor1-last=Guy|title =Lost Kingdoms of Early Southeast Asia: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture 5th to 8th century|chapter =Southeast Asia and the Early Maritime Silk Road|publisher =Yale University Press|year =2014|pages=22–25|isbn =9781588395245|url =https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263007720}}</ref><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|first1= Waruno|last1=Mahdi|editor1-last =Blench|editor1-first= Roger |editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew|title =Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|chapter =The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|volume = 34|publisher =Routledge|series =One World Archaeology |year =1999|pages=144–179|isbn =978-0415100540}}</ref><ref name="Herrera"/>

They also established early long-distance contacts with Africa, possibly as early as before 500 BCE, based on archaeological evidence like banana [[phytolith]]s in [[Cameroon]] and [[Uganda]] and remains of Neolithic chicken bones in [[Zanzibar]].<ref name="Tofanelli"/><ref name="Adelaar"/> An Austronesian group, originally from the [[Makassar Strait]] region around [[Kalimantan]] and [[Sulawesi]],<ref name="Pierron">{{cite journal |last1=Pierron |first1=Denis |last2=Razafindrazaka |first2=Harilanto |last3=Pagani |first3=Luca |last4=Ricaut |first4=François-Xavier |last5=Antao |first5=Tiago |last6=Capredon |first6=Mélanie |last7=Sambo |first7=Clément |last8=Radimilahy |first8=Chantal |last9=Rakotoarisoa |first9=Jean-Aimé |last10=Blench |first10=Roger M. |last11=Letellier |first11=Thierry |last12=Kivisild |first12=Toomas |title=Genome-wide evidence of Austronesian–Bantu admixture and cultural reversion in a hunter-gatherer group of Madagascar |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=21 January 2014 |volume=111 |issue=3 |pages=936–941 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1321860111|doi-access=free |pmid=24395773 |pmc=3903192 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111..936P }}</ref><ref name="Heiske">{{cite journal |last1=Heiske |first1=Margit |last2=Alva |first2=Omar |last3=Pereda-Loth |first3=Veronica |last4=Van Schalkwyk |first4=Matthew |last5=Radimilahy |first5=Chantal |last6=Letellier |first6=Thierry |last7=Rakotarisoa |first7=Jean-Aimé |last8=Pierron |first8=Denis |title=Genetic evidence and historical theories of the Asian and African origins of the present Malagasy population |journal=Human Molecular Genetics |date=26 April 2021 |volume=30 |issue=R1 |pages=R72–R78 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddab018|pmid=33481023 }}</ref> eventually [[History of Madagascar#A common Austronesian origin: The Vahoaka Ntaolo|settled]] [[Madagascar]], either directly from Southeast Asia or from preexisting mixed Austronesian-[[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] populations from [[East Africa]]. Estimates for when this occurred vary from the 1st century CE,<ref name="Herrera">{{cite journal |last1=Herrera |first1=Michael B. |last2=Thomson |first2=Vicki A. |last3=Wadley |first3=Jessica J. |last4=Piper |first4=Philip J. |last5=Sulandari |first5=Sri |last6=Dharmayanthi |first6=Anik Budhi |last7=Kraitsek |first7=Spiridoula |last8=Gongora |first8=Jaime |last9=Austin |first9=Jeremy J. |title=East African origins for Madagascan chickens as indicated by mitochondrial DNA |journal=Royal Society Open Science |date=March 2017 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=160787 |doi=10.1098/rsos.160787|pmid=28405364 |pmc=5383821 |bibcode=2017RSOS....460787H |hdl=2440/104470 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> to as late as the 6th to 7th centuries CE.<ref name="Tofanelli">{{cite journal |last1=Tofanelli |first1=S. |last2=Bertoncini |first2=S. |last3=Castri |first3=L. |last4=Luiselli |first4=D. |last5=Calafell |first5=F. |last6=Donati |first6=G. |last7=Paoli |first7=G. |title=On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=1 September 2009 |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=2109–2124 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msp120}}</ref><ref name="Adelaar">{{cite journal |last1=Adelaar |first1=Alexander |title=Malagasy Phonological History and Bantu Influence |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |date=June 2012 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=123–159 |doi=10.1353/ol.2012.0003|hdl=11343/121829 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is likely that the Austronesians that settled Madagascar followed a coastal route through South Asia and East Africa, rather than directly across the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Blust2019"/> Genetic evidence suggests that some individuals of Austronesian descent reached Africa and the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brucato |first=N. |date=2019 |title=Evidence of Austronesian Genetic Lineages in East Africa and South Arabia: Complex Dispersal from Madagascar and Southeast Asia |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |url=https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/11/3/748/5306180 |access-date=23 May 2024 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=748–758 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evz028 |pmc=6423374 |pmid=30715341}}</ref>▼

▲They also established early long-distance contacts with Africa, possibly as early as before 500 BCE, based on archaeological evidence like banana [[phytolith]]s in [[Cameroon]] and [[Uganda]] and remains of Neolithic chicken bones in [[Zanzibar]].<ref name="Tofanelli"/><ref name="Adelaar"/> An Austronesian group, originally from the [[Makassar Strait]] region around [[Kalimantan]] and [[Sulawesi]],<ref name="Pierron">{{cite journal |last1=Pierron |first1=Denis |last2=Razafindrazaka |first2=Harilanto |last3=Pagani |first3=Luca |last4=Ricaut |first4=François-Xavier |last5=Antao |first5=Tiago |last6=Capredon |first6=Mélanie |last7=Sambo |first7=Clément |last8=Radimilahy |first8=Chantal |last9=Rakotoarisoa |first9=Jean-Aimé |last10=Blench |first10=Roger M. |last11=Letellier |first11=Thierry |last12=Kivisild |first12=Toomas |title=Genome-wide evidence of Austronesian–Bantu admixture and cultural reversion in a hunter-gatherer group of Madagascar |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=21 January 2014 |volume=111 |issue=3 |pages=936–941 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1321860111|doi-access=free |pmid=24395773 |pmc=3903192 |bibcode=2014PNAS..111..936P }}</ref><ref name="Heiske">{{cite journal |last1=Heiske |first1=Margit |last2=Alva |first2=Omar |last3=Pereda-Loth |first3=Veronica |last4=Van Schalkwyk |first4=Matthew |last5=Radimilahy |first5=Chantal |last6=Letellier |first6=Thierry |last7=Rakotarisoa |first7=Jean-Aimé |last8=Pierron |first8=Denis |title=Genetic evidence and historical theories of the Asian and African origins of the present Malagasy population |journal=Human Molecular Genetics |date=26 April 2021 |volume=30 |issue=R1 |pages=R72–R78 |doi=10.1093/hmg/ddab018|pmid=33481023 }}</ref> eventually [[History of Madagascar#A common Austronesian origin: The Vahoaka Ntaolo|settled]] [[Madagascar]], either directly from Southeast Asia or from preexisting mixed Austronesian-[[Bantu peoples|Bantu]] populations from [[East Africa]]. Estimates for when this occurred vary from the 1st century CE,<ref name="Herrera">{{cite journal |last1=Herrera |first1=Michael B. |last2=Thomson |first2=Vicki A. |last3=Wadley |first3=Jessica J. |last4=Piper |first4=Philip J. |last5=Sulandari |first5=Sri |last6=Dharmayanthi |first6=Anik Budhi |last7=Kraitsek |first7=Spiridoula |last8=Gongora |first8=Jaime |last9=Austin |first9=Jeremy J. |title=East African origins for Madagascan chickens as indicated by mitochondrial DNA |journal=Royal Society Open Science |date=March 2017 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=160787 |doi=10.1098/rsos.160787|pmid=28405364 |pmc=5383821 |bibcode=2017RSOS....460787H |hdl=2440/104470 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> to as late as the 6th to 7th centuries CE.<ref name="Tofanelli">{{cite journal |last1=Tofanelli |first1=S. |last2=Bertoncini |first2=S. |last3=Castri |first3=L. |last4=Luiselli |first4=D. |last5=Calafell |first5=F. |last6=Donati |first6=G. |last7=Paoli |first7=G. |title=On the Origins and Admixture of Malagasy: New Evidence from High-Resolution Analyses of Paternal and Maternal Lineages |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |date=1 September 2009 |volume=26 |issue=9 |pages=2109–2124 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msp120|pmid=19535740 }}</ref><ref name="Adelaar">{{cite journal |last1=Adelaar |first1=Alexander |title=Malagasy Phonological History and Bantu Influence |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |date=June 2012 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=123–159 |doi=10.1353/ol.2012.0003|hdl=11343/121829 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> It is likely that the Austronesians that settled Madagascar followed a coastal route through South Asia and East Africa, rather than directly across the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Blust2019"/> Genetic evidence suggests that some individuals of Austronesian descent reached Africa and the [[Arabian Peninsula]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brucato |first=N. |date=2019 |title=Evidence of Austronesian Genetic Lineages in East Africa and South Arabia: Complex Dispersal from Madagascar and Southeast Asia |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |url=https://academic.oup.com/gbe/article/11/3/748/5306180 |access-date=23 May 2024 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=748–758 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evz028 |pmc=6423374 |pmid=30715341}}</ref>

By around the 2nd century BCE, the [[Neolithic]] Austronesian jade and spice trade networks in Southeast Asia connected with the maritime trade routes of [[South Asia]], the [[Middle East]], eastern [[Africa]], and the [[Mediterranean]], becoming what is now known as the [[Maritime Silk Road]]. Prior to the 10th century, the eastern part of the route was primarily used by Southeast Asian Austronesian traders using distinctive [[lashed lug boat|lashed-lug]] ships, although [[Tamil people|Tamil]] and [[Persian people|Persian]] traders also sailed the western parts of the routes.<ref name="Guan">{{cite journal |last1=Guan |first1=Kwa Chong |title=The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea |journal=NSC Working Paper |date=2016 |issue=23 |pages=1–30 |url=https://www.iseas.edu.sg/images/pdf/nscwps23.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Billé/> It allowed the exchange of goods from [[East Asia|East]] and Southeast Asia on one end, all the way to [[Europe]] and eastern Africa on the other.<ref name=Billé>{{cite book |editor1=Franck Billé |editor2=Sanjyot Mehendale |editor3=James W. Lankton |title=The Maritime Silk Road |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/id/689adfe3-2dfa-4a0d-b04b-3a5f60cb7fad/9789048552429.pdf |year=2022 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-4855-242-9}}</ref>

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====Neighbours of China====

[[File:Gold monster.jpg|thumb|Gold stag with eagle's head, and ten more heads in the antlers. Inspired by Siberian Altai mountain art, possibly [[Pazyryk culture|Pazyryk]], unearthed at Nalinggaotu, [[Shenmu County]], near [[Xi'an]], [[China]]. Possibly from Huns of the Northern Chinese prairie. 4th to 3rd centuries BC,{{sfn|Rawson|1999}} or [[Han Dynasty]] period. [[Shaanxi History Museum]].<ref name=SHM>{{cite web |title=Shaanxi History Museum notice |url=http://e.sxhm.com/en_product_content.asp?id=49 |website=Shaanxi History Museum |access-date=18 October 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114125435/http://e.sxhm.com/en_product_content.asp?id=49 |url-status=live }}</ref>|left]]

The East Asian nations adjacent to China were all profoundly influenced by their interactions with [[East Asian cultural sphere|Chinese civilisation]]. [[Korea]] and [[Vietnam]] were brought under Han rule by [[Han Wudi]] in the second century BC, and this rule led to cultural influences on both areas for many centuries to come.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|pp=195–196}} Wudi also faced a threat from the [[Xiongnu]], a nomadic people from the Central Asian steppes. Wudi's invasions ended the Xiongnu state.{{sfn|Bentley|Ziegler|2006|pp=196–197}}

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[[File:Parthenon (30276156187).jpg|thumb|The [[Parthenon]], a temple dedicated to [[Athena]], located on the [[Acropolis]] in [[Athens]]]]

Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe beginning with the [[Cycladic civilization]] on the islands of the [[Aegean Sea]] around 3200 BC,<ref>{{Cite book | last = Sansone | first = David | title = Ancient Greek civilization | page = 5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=YJONdN0dNYQC&q=cycladic%20civilization&pg=PT27 | publisher = Wiley | year = 2011| isbn = 9781444358773 }}</ref> and the [[Minoan civilization]] in Crete (2700–1500 BC).<ref name="Frucht2004">{{cite book| first = Richard C | last = Frucht|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA847 |access-date=5 December 2012|date=31 December 2004 | publisher =ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-800-6|page= 847|quote= People appear to have first entered Greece as hunter-gatherers from southwest Asia about 50,000 years... of Bronze Age culture and technology laid the foundations for the rise of Europe's first civilization, Minoan Crete}}</ref><ref name="World and Its Peoples">{{cite book| title= World and Its Peoples| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b5vHRWp8yqEC&pg=PA1458|access-date=5 December 2012|date=September 2009|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0-7614-7902-4|page= 1458|quote=Greece was home to the earliest European civilizations, the Minoan civilization of Crete, which developed around 2000 BC, and the Mycenaean civilization on the Greek mainland, which emerged about 400 years later}}</ref> The Minoans built large palaces decorated with frescoes and wrote in the [[Undeciphered writing systems|undeciphered script]] known as [[Linear A]]. The [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] civilization, the first distinctively Greek civilization later emerged on the mainland (1600–1100 BC), consisting of a network of palace-centered states and writing the earliest [[Attested language|attested]] form of [[Greek language|Greek]] with the [[Linear B]] script.<ref name="World and Its Peoples" /> The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, along with several other civilizations in the eastern Mediterranean, during the regional event known as the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]].<ref>{{Cite book | last = Drews | first = Robert |author-link=Robert Drews | title = The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe Ca. 1200 BC | page = 3 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bFpK6aXEWN8C&q=greece%20bronze%20age%20collapse | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1995| isbn = 0691025916 }}</ref> This ushered in a period known as the [[Greek Dark Ages]], from which written records are absent.

The [[Archaic Greece|Archaic Period]] in Greece is generally considered to have lasted from around the 8th century BC to the invasion by Xerxes in 480 BC. This period saw the expansion of the Greek world around the Mediterranean, with the founding of Greek city-states as far afield as Sicily in the west and the Black Sea in the east.{{sfn|Boardman|Hammond|1970|p=xiii}} Politically, the Archaic period in Greece saw the collapse of the power of the old aristocracies, with democratic reforms in Athens and the development of [[Spartan Constitution|Sparta's unique constitution]]. The end of the Archaic period also saw the rise of Athens, which would come to be a dominant power in the [[Classical Greece|Classical Period]], after the reforms of [[Solon]] and the tyranny of [[Pisistratus]].{{sfn|Boardman|Hammond|1970|p=xv}}

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==Further reading==

{{Library resources box |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Ancient history }}▼

{{refbegin|30em}}

* {{cite book |last1=Hodges |first1=Henry |title=Technology in the Ancient World |first2=Judith |last2=Newcomer |year=1992 |publisher=Barnes & Noble |isbn=978-0-88029-893-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/technologyinanci0000hodg_r7j2 }}

* {{cite book |last= Kinzl |first= Konrad H. |title= Directory of Ancient Historians in the USA, 2nd ed. |year= 1998 |publisher= Regina Books |location= Claremont, Calif. |isbn= 978-0-941690-87-4 |url= http://people.trentu.ca/kkinzl/aahdir.html |access-date= 24 February 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100215024206/http://people.trentu.ca/kkinzl/aahdir.html |archive-date= 15 February 2010 |url-status= dead }} Web edition is constantly updated.

* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Carol G. |title=Decoding Ancient History: A Toolkit for the Historian as Detective |author2=D. P. Wick |year=1994 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |isbn=978-0-13-200205-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/decodingancienth0000thom }}▼

* {{cite book |last=Toffteen |first=Olaf Alfred |title=Ancient Chronology |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientchronolo01toffgoog |year=1907 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}

▲* {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Carol G. |title=Decoding Ancient History: A Toolkit for the Historian as Detective |author2=D.P. Wick |year=1994 |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |isbn=978-0-13-200205-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/decodingancienth0000thom }}

{{refend}}

==External links==

▲{{Library resources box |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Ancient history }}

===Websites===

* [https://www.worldhistory.org World History Encyclopedia]