British war crimes: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{Short description|War crimes perpetrated by the United Kingdom and its armed forces}}

{{Multiple issues|

{{POV|date=December 2017}}

{{Original research|date=March 2021}}

}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}

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On 26 October 1900, the British [[justice of the peace]] at [[Ventersburg]] (in the former [[Orange Free State]]), William Williams, relayed a secret message to Field Marshal Lord [[Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts|Frederick Roberts]] alleging that Boer Commandos were concentrating in the village. Roberts decreed that "an example should be made of Ventersburg".<ref>John Boje (2015), ''An Imperfect Occupation: Enduring the South African War'', [[University of Illinois]] Press. Page 93.</ref> On 28 October, Roberts issued orders to General [[Bruce Hamilton (British Army officer)|Bruce Hamilton]] that all houses belonging to absent males were to be burned down. After burning down the village and its [[Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa|Dutch Reformed]] church, Hamilton posted a bulletin stating: "The town of Ventersburg has been cleansed of supplies and partly burnt, and all the farms in the vicinity destroyed, on account of the frequent attacks on the railway lines in the neighborhood. The Boer women and children who are left behind should apply to the [[Boer Commando|Boer Commandants]] for food, who will supply them unless they wish to see them starve. No supplies will be sent from the railway to the town."<ref name="Boje 2015, page 93">Boje (2015), page 93.</ref> {{failed verification|date=March 2021}}

On 1 November 1900, Major Edward Pine-Coffin wrote in his diary that the remaining civilian population of Ventersburg had been transported to concentration camps. He admitted to having families divided, with male and female Afrikaners sent to different locations "so that after the war they will have some difficulty in getting together."<ref name="Boje 2015, page 93"/> The destruction of Ventersburg was denounced in the [[House of Commons]] by [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] MP [[David Lloyd George]], who said Hamilton "is a brute and a disgrace to the uniform he wears."<ref>PackenhamPakenham (1979), pages 534–535.</ref> {{failed verification|date=March 2021}}

====Louis Trichardt====

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1. The shooting of six surrendered [[Afrikaner people|Afrikaner]] men and boys and the theft of their money and livestock at [[Valdezia]] on 2 July 1901. The orders had been given by Captains [[Alfred Taylor (British Army officer)|Alfred Taylor]] and James Huntley Robertson, and relayed by Sgt. Maj. K.C.B. Morrison to Sgt. D.C. Oldham. The actual killing was alleged to have been carried out by Sgt. Oldham and BVC Troopers Eden, Arnold, Brown, Heath, and Dale.<ref>Leach (2012), pages 17–22, 99.</ref>

2. The shooting of BVC Trooper B.J. van Buuren by BVC Lt. [[Peter Handcock]] on 4 July 1901. Trooper van Buuren, an Afrikaner, had "disapproved" of the killings at Valdezia, and had informed the victims' wives and children, who were imprisoned at Fort Edward, of what had happened.<ref>Leach (2012), pages 22–23, 99.</ref>

3. The [[revenge killing]] of Floris Visser, a wounded [[prisoner of war]], near the [[Koedoes River]] on 11 August 1901. Visser had been captured by a BVC patrol let by Lieut. [[Breaker Morant|Harry Morant]] two days before his death. After Visser had been exhaustively interrogated and conveyed for 15 miles by the patrol, Lt. Morant had ordered his men to form a [[firing squad]] and shoot him. The squad consisted of BVC Troopers A.J. Petrie, J.J. Gill, Wild, and T.J. Botha. A [[coup de grâce]] was delivered by BVC Lt. [[Harry Picton]]. The slaying of Floris Visser was in retaliation for the combat death of Morant's close friend, BVC Captain Percy Frederik Hunt, at [[Duivelskloof]] on 6 August 1901.<ref>Leach (2012), pages 35–60, 100.</ref>

4. The shooting, ordered by Capt. Taylor and Lt. Morant, of four surrendered Afrikaners and four [[Dutch people|Dutch]] schoolteachers, who had been captured at the [[Elim Hospital]] in Valdezia, on the morning of 23 August 1901. The firing squad consisted of BVC Lt. [[George Witton]], Sgt. D.C. Oldham, and Troopers J.T. Arnold, Edward Brown, T. Dale, and A. Heath. Although Trooper Cochrane's letter made no mention of the fact, three Nativenative South African witnesses were also shot dead.<ref>Leach (2012), pages 61–72, 100.</ref>

The ambush and fatal shooting of the Reverend [[Daniel Heese|Carl August Daniel Heese]] of the [[Berlin Missionary Society]] near [[Bandolierkop]] on the afternoon of 23 August 1901. Rev. Heese had spiritually counseled the Dutch and Afrikaner victims that morning and had angrily protested to Lt. Morant at Fort Edward upon learning of their deaths. Trooper Cochrane alleged that the killer of Rev. Heese was BVC Lt. Peter Handcock. Although Cochrane made no mention of the fact, Rev. Heese's driver, a member of the [[Southern Ndebele people]], was also killed.<ref>Leach (2012), pages 62–68, 73–82, 100.</ref>

5. The orders, given by BVC Lt. [[Charles H.G. Hannam]], to open fire on a wagon train containing Afrikaner women and children who were coming in to surrender at Fort Edward, on 5 September 1901. The ensuing gunfire led to the deaths of two boys, aged 5- and 13-years, and the wounding of a 9-year-old girl.<ref>Leach (2012), pages 83–86, 100.</ref>

6. The shooting of Roelf van Staden and his sons Roelf and Christiaan, near Fort Edward on 7 September 1901. All were coming in to surrender in the hope of gaining medical treatment for teenaged Christiaan, who was suffering from recurring bouts of fever. Instead, they were met at the Sweetwaters Farm near Fort Edward by a party consisting of Lts. Morant and Handcock, joined by BVC Sgt. Maj. Hammet, Corp. MacMahon, and Troopers Hodds, Botha, and Thompson. Roelf van Staden and both his sons were then shot, allegedly after being forced to dig their own graves.<ref>Leach (2012), pages 87–90, 100–101.</ref>

The letter then accused the [[Field Commander]] of the BVC, Major [[Robert William Lenehan]], of being "privy to these misdeamenours. It is for this reason that we have taken the liberty of addressing this communication direct to you." After listing numerous civilian witnesses who could confirm their allegations, Trooper Cochrane concluded, "Sir, many of us are [[Australian people|Australians]] who have fought throughout nearly the whole war while others are [[Afrikaner people|Africaners]] who have fought from Colenso till now. We cannot return home with the stigma of these crimes attached to our names. Therefore we humbly pray that a full and exhaustive inquiry be made by Imperial officers in order that the truth be elicited and justice done. Also we beg that all witnesses may be kept in camp at Pietersburg till the inquiry is finished. So deeply do we deplore the opprobrium which must be inseparably attached to these crimes that scarcely a man once his time is up can be prevailed to re-enlist in this corps. Trusting for the credit of thinking you will grant the inquiry we seek."<ref>Leach (2012), page 100-101.</ref>

====Arrests====

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The [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] also vainly protested that the [[Flag of the United States|American flag]] had been used as a [[false flag]], as this placed American ships in danger. [[Walter Hines Page]], the U.S. ambassador in London, was telegraphed by Secretary of State [[Robert Lansing]] and ordered to not ask Sir Edward Grey any questions about whether the American flag had been used in the case. "The fact," he was told, "is established."<ref name="de Zayas 1989, page 8"/>

The massacre of ''U-27''{{'}}s unarmed survivors and the Royal Navy's refusal to court-martial the perpetrators led the [[Imperial German Navy]] to cease adhering to the [[Prize Rules]] and to adopt [[unrestricted submarine warfare]]. During the [[Second World War]], it was cited by Admiral [[Karl Dönitz]] as a reason for the ''[[Kriegsmarine]]'' to do the same. A German medal was issued commemorating the victims of the masacreincident.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://collections.nmm.ac.uk/collections/objects/39815.html |title=Medal commemorating the sinking of 'U.27' by Q-ship 'Baralong', 1915 |work=The Collection |publisher=National Maritime Museum |access-date=10 December 2011}}</ref>

====SM ''U-41''====

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The Military Bureau also compiled a thirteen-page "Black List of Englishmen who are guilty of violations of the laws of war vis a vis members of the German Armed Forces" ({{lang-de|Schwarze Liste derjenigen Engländer, die sie während des Krieges gegenüber deutschen Heeresangehörigen völkerechtwidringen Verhaltens schuldig gemacht haben}}). The list, which survived the Allied firebombing of [[Berlin]] and [[Potsdam]] during the [[Second World War]], contains a total of 39 names, including "[[Godfrey Herbert|Captain McBride]]" of HMS ''Baralong''. In contrast, however, nine similar lists survive of alleged French war criminals and consist of 400 names.<ref>Alfred de Zayas (1989), pages 8, 279 note 32, 325.</ref>

Following the Armistice, investigation continued, particularly into alleged crimes against and inhumane conditions of [[German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom|German POWs]] held in Allied military custody and particularly by the [[Imperial Russian Army]], and culminated in a five volume report entitled ''International Law during the World War'' ({{lang-de|Völkerrecht im Weltkrieg}}). The report was never translated, however, and had minimal effect outside of Germany.<ref>Alfred de Zayas (1989), pages 9–10, 279 note 42.</ref>

Also following the Armistice, the victorious [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] pooled their reports, compiled a joint list of alleged [[German war crimes]], and demanded the extradition of 900 alleged war criminals for trial in France and the United Kingdom. As this proved unacceptable to the German electorate, the Government of the [[Weimar Republic]] agreed to try them domestically in the [[Leipzig War Crimes Trials]].<ref>Alfred de Zayas (1989), pages 4–5.</ref>

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*[[British invasion of Iceland]]<ref>{{Cite book |author=Walling, Michael G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CTnDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |title=Forgotten Sacrifice: The Arctic Convoys of World War II |date=20 October 2012 |isbn=978-1-4728-1110-3 |pages=29 | publisher=Bloomsbury |oclc=1026826446}}</ref>

*[[Psilander affair]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=English |first=Adrian |date=2014 |title=The Faeroes incident – The Irish connection |url=https://www.histarmar.com.ar/InfGral/Faeores.htm |access-date=2022-09-03 |website=www.histarmar.com.ar |publisher=Royal Swedish Academy}}</ref>

*[[Altmark incident]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Waldock |first=C. H. M. |date=1947 |title=The Release of the Altmark's Prisoners |url=https://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/byrint24&id=230&div=&collection= |journal=British Year BookYearbook of International Law |volume=24 |pages=216}}</ref>

*[[British occupation of the Faroe Islands]]<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Ladd |first=James D |title=The Royal Marines 1919-1980 |publisher=Jane's Publishing Company Limited |year=1980 |isbn=0-7106-0011-9 |location=London |pages=420–421 |language=English}}</ref>

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=== Headhunting and scalping ===

{{Main|British Malayan headhunting scandal}}

During the war, British and Commonwealth forces hired [[Iban people|Iban]] (Dyak) headhunters from [[Borneo]] to decapitate suspected MNLA members, arguing that this was done for identification purposes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Harrison |first=Simon |title=Dark Trophies: Hunting and the Enemy Body in Modern War |publisher=Berghahn |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-78238-520-2 |location=Oxford |pages=158 |language=English}}</ref> Iban headhunters were also permitted by British military leaders to take the scalps of corpses to be kept as trophies.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hack |first=Karl |title=The Malayan Emergency: Revolution and Counterinsurgency at the End of Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |location=Cambridge |pages=318}}</ref> However, in practice this led to British troops taking the severed heads of Malayan people as trophies.<ref name=":1" /> After the practice of headhunting in Malaya by Ibans had been exposed to the public, the Foreign Office first tried to deny that the practice existed, before then trying to justify Iban headhunting and conduct damage control in the press.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Hack |first=Karl |title=The Malayan Emergency: Revolution and Counterinsurgency at the End of Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |location=Cambridge |pages=316}}</ref> Privately, the Colonial Office noted that "there is no doubt that under [[international law]] a similar case in wartime would be a war crime".<ref name="MAL2">{{cite book |author=Fujio Hara |title=Malaysian Chinese & China: Conversion in Identity Consciousness, 1945–1957 |date=December 2002 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |pages=61–65}}</ref><ref name="Mark Curtis 61–71">{{cite book |author=Mark Curtis |title=The Ambiguities of Power: British Foreign Policy Since 1945 |date=15 August 1995 |pages=61–71}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> One of the trophy heads was later found to have been displayed in a British regimental museum.<ref name=":1" />

In 1952, April, the [[Communist Party of Great Britain|British communist]] newspaper the [[Morning Star (British newspaper)|''Daily Worker'']] (today known as the [[Morning Star (British newspaper)|''Morning Star'']]) published a photograph of British [[Royal Marines]] in a British military base in Malaya openly posing with decapitated human heads.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hack |first=Karl |title=The Malayan Emergency: Revolution and Counterinsurgency at the End of Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |location=Cambridge |pages=315}}</ref> Initially British government spokespersons belonging to the [[Admiralty (United Kingdom)|Admiralty]] and the [[Colonial Office]] claimed the photograph was fake. In response to the accusations that their headhunting photograph was fake, the ''Daily Worker'' released yet another photograph taken in Malaya showing British soldiers posing with a severed head. However, Colonial Secretary [[Oliver Lyttelton]] (after confirmation from Field-Marshal [[Gerald Templer]]) confirmed to parliament that the photos were indeed genuine.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Peng |first1=Chin |title=Alias Chin Peng: My Side of History |last2=Ward |first2=Ian |last3=Miraflor |first3=Norma |publisher=Media Masters |year=2003 |isbn=981-04-8693-6 |location=Singapore |pages=302}}</ref> In response to the ''Daily Worker'' articles exposing the decapitation of MNLA suspects, the practice was banned by Winston Churchill who feared that such photographs would give ammunition to communist propaganda.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hack |first=Karl |title=The Malayan Emergency: Revolution and Counterinsurgency at the End of Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |location=Cambridge |pages=317}}</ref>

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=== Malayan Emergency gallery ===

<gallery>

File:British soldier with decapitated head during Malayan Emergency.jpg|A British soldier poses with the severed head of a suspected pro-independence guerrilla

File:Malayan Emergency Iban headhunter.jpg|alt=|An Iban headhunter wearing a Royal Marine beret prepares a human scalp above a basket of human body parts.

File:Iban headhunter holding scalp during Malayan Emergency.jpg|An Iban headhunter posing with a human scalp

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{{See also|List of British detention camps during the Mau Mau Uprising|Use of torture since 1948#Kenya 2}}

During an [[Mau Mau Uprising|eight-year conflict in Kenya]] from 1952 to 1960 in which Britain sought to restore order, many Kikuyu were relocated. According to British authorities 80,000 were interned, while [[Caroline Elkins]] estimated that between 160,000 and 320,000 were interned;<ref name=Guard>{{Cite news|date=2016-08-18|title=Mau Mau uprising: Bloody history of Kenya conflict|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2016/aug/18/uncovering-truth-british-empire-caroline-elkins-mau-mau|access-date=2021-07-03}}</ref> other estimates are as high as 450,000 interned. According to David Anderson, the British hanged over 1,090 suspected rebels. Another 400 were sentenced to death but reprieved because they were under 18 or women. The British declared some areas prohibited zones where anyone could be shot. It was common for Kikuyu to be shot because they "failed to halt when challenged."<ref name="MARK CURTIS 2003 324–330">{{cite book |title=WEB OF DECEIT: BRITAIN'S REAL FOREIGN POLICY: BRITAIN'S REAL ROLE IN THE WORLD |pages=324–330 |publisher= VINTAGE |author=MARK CURTIS |year=2003}}</ref><ref name="Caroline Elkins 2005 124–145">{{cite book |title=Britain's gulag: the brutal end of empire in Kenya |pages=124–145 |publisher=Pimlico |author=Caroline Elkins |year=2005}}</ref><ref name="David Anderson 150–154">{{cite book |title=Histories of the Hanged: The Dirty War in Kenya and the End of Empire |pages=150–154 |publisher=W. W. Norton |author=David Anderson |date=23 January 2013}}</ref>

Torture and atrocities were committed during the conflict. According to Elkins:

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The [[Chuka massacre]], which happened in [[Chuka, Kenya]], was perpetrated by members of the [[King's African Rifles]] B Company in June 1953 with 20 unarmed people killed during the [[Mau Mau uprising]]. Members of the 5th KAR B Company entered the Chuka area on 13 June 1953, to flush out rebels suspected of hiding in the nearby forests. Over the next few days, the regiment had captured and executed 20 people suspected of being Mau Mau fighters for unknown reasons. It is found out that most of the people executed were actually belonged to the [[Kikuyu Home Guard]] – a loyalist militia recruited by the British to fight a guerrilla enemy.{{Citation needed|date=January 2018}}

All of the soldiers involved in the Chuka patrols were placed under open arrest at Nairobi's Buller Camp, but General [[George Erskine]], Commander-in-Chief of the [[East Africa Command]], decided not to prosecute them. Instead, he would make an example of their commanding officer, Major Gerald Selby Lee Griffiths. And, rather than risk bringing publicity to the Chuka affair, Erskine was able to obtain evidence to have Griffiths charged with the murder of two other suspects in a separate incident that had taken place a few weeks before the Chuka massacre. However, the 5th KAR soldiers giving evidence at the courts martial in November 1953 refused to speak frankly against Griffiths. He was acquitted of the charge and rest of the soldiers were not charged either. Following public outcry, however, Griffiths was putthen beforetried under six separate charges of torture and disgraceful conduct for torturing two unarmed detainees, including a secondman named Njeru Ndwega. At his court-martial, followingit thewas McLeanstated inquiry'sthat findingsGriffiths chargedhad withmade theNdwega murdertake ofoff thehis firstpants, guide.before Ontelling 11a Marchteenage 1954,African heprivate wasto foundcastrate guiltyhim. ofWhen murderthe andprivate, sentenceda to16-year-old fiveSomali yearsnamed imprisonment;Ali heSegat, wasrefused cashieredto fromdo thethis, ArmyGriffiths andinstead servedordered hishim sentenceto incut Wormwoodoff ScrubsNdwega's inear, Londonto which Segat complied.<ref>{{citeCite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Davidmagazine |date=September 20081954-03-22 |title=AKENYA: Very British MassacreCourt-Martial |url=https://historyslccontent.files.wordpresstime.com/2008time/09subscriber/article/a-very-british-massacre0,33009,819577,00.pdfhtml |access-date=162024-03-21 August|magazine=Time 2020|language=en-US |websiteissn=[[History Today]]0040-781X}}</ref><ref name="FAB">{{citeOn journal11 |last1=AndersonMarch |first1=David1954, |last2=BennettGriffiths |first2=Huwwas |last3=Branchfound |first3=Danielguilty on five counts. He was sentenced to five years in prison and was [[cashiered]] from the Army.<ref>{{Cite news |date=August 20061954-03-12 |title=A Very British MassacreGriffiths |url=httphttps://www.historytodaynewspapers.com/david-andersonarticle/verythe-britishsydney-massacremorning-herald-griffiths/143798091/ |journalaccess-date=History Today2024-03-21 |volumework=56The |issue=8Sydney Morning Herald |pages=20–221}}</ref><ref> He served his sentence at [http://allafrica.com/stories/200607170327.html?page=5[HM Kenya:Prison UnveilingWormwood SecretsScrubs|Wormwood ofScrubs Kenya'sPrison]</ref>] in London.<ref>{{citationcite web |titlelast1=MoDAnderson 'refusing|first1=David to|date=September release file on massacre of Kenyans'2008 |datetitle=10A JulyVery 2006British Massacre |url=https://wwwhistoryslc.telegraphfiles.cowordpress.ukcom/news2008/uknews09/1523502/MoDa-refusingvery-to-release-file-onbritish-massacre-of-Kenyans.htmlpdf |workaccessdate=Telegraph.co.uk16 August 2020 |website=[[History Today]]}}</ref><ref>{{London Gazette

| issue = 40270

| date = 3 September 1954

| page = 5124

| supp = y

}}</ref> None of the other ranks involved in the massacre has been prosecuted.<ref name="FAB2">{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=David |last2=Bennett |first2=Huw |last3=Branch |first3=Daniel |date=August 2006 |title=A Very British Massacre |url=http://www.historytoday.com/david-anderson/very-british-massacre |journal=History Today |volume=56 |issue=8 |pages=20–22}}</ref><ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/200607170327.html?page=5 Kenya: Unveiling Secrets of Kenya's]</ref><ref>{{citation |title=MoD 'refusing to release file on massacre of Kenyans' |date=10 July 2006 |work=Telegraph.co.uk |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1523502/MoD-refusing-to-release-file-on-massacre-of-Kenyans.html}}</ref>

Griffiths was put before a second court-martial following the McLean inquiry's findings charged with the murder of the first guide. On 11 March 1954, he was found guilty of murder and sentenced to five years imprisonment; he was cashiered from the Army and served his sentence in Wormwood Scrubs in London.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=David |date=September 2008 |title=A Very British Massacre |url=https://historyslc.files.wordpress.com/2008/09/a-very-british-massacre.pdf |access-date=16 August 2020 |website=[[History Today]]}}</ref><ref name="FAB">{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=David |last2=Bennett |first2=Huw |last3=Branch |first3=Daniel |date=August 2006 |title=A Very British Massacre |url=http://www.historytoday.com/david-anderson/very-british-massacre |journal=History Today |volume=56 |issue=8 |pages=20–22}}</ref><ref>[http://allafrica.com/stories/200607170327.html?page=5 Kenya: Unveiling Secrets of Kenya's]</ref><ref>{{citation |title=MoD 'refusing to release file on massacre of Kenyans' |date=10 July 2006 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1523502/MoD-refusing-to-release-file-on-massacre-of-Kenyans.html |work=Telegraph.co.uk}}</ref>

===Hola massacre===

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===Kiruara massacre===

[[File:Monument Hola Massacre, Kenya.jpg|thumb|120px|Hola Massacre monument]]

The Kiruara Massacre occurred on the 23 November 1952. British security forces were called to a crowd of Kikuyu who had gathered to hear the prophecies of a man who claimed to have seen a vision foreshadowing the end of colonial rule. After the crowd failed to disperse, the authorities opened fire with Sten guns. While the official death toll for the massacre stood at fifteen, it has been claimed that the death toll may have been as high as four hundred.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Elkins |first=Caroline |title=Britain's gulag: the brutal end of empire in Kenya |date=2005 |publisher=Pimlico |isbn=978-1-84413-548-6 |edition=Pimlico |series=Pimlico |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Anderson |first=David |title=Histories of the hanged: the dirty war in Kenya and the end of empire |date=2005 |publisher=Norton |isbn=978-0-393-32754-0 |edition=1. American |location=New York, NY}}</ref>

==The Troubles==

[[File:Collusion is not an illusion.jpg|thumb|right|300px|alt=A mural in Belfast graphically depicting the collusion between British security forces and Ulster loyalist groups; Image reads: "Collusion is not an illusion, it is state murder" |A [[Murals in Northern Ireland|mural]] in Belfast depicting [[Operation Banner#Collusion with loyalist paramilitaries|the collusion]] between the [[Royal Ulster Constabulary]] and [[Ulster loyalism|Ulster loyalist]] paramilitaries.]]

{{See also|Shoot-to-kill policy in Northern Ireland}}

[[The Troubles]] in Northern Ireland was a three-decade-long ethnic-nationalist conflict between [[Ulster loyalism|Ulster loyalists]] (primarily the [[Ulster Volunteer Force]] and [[Ulster Defence Association]]) and [[Irish nationalism|Irish nationalists]] (primarily the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army]]) in the region. Due to the escalating tension, the British Army was deployed into the region in 1969 to serve as a peacekeeping force under the task force [[Operation Banner]]. The soldiers were initially welcomed by the Catholic population; the relieve of the RUC from some security duties and the disbandment of the [[Ulster Special Constabulary|B specials]] brought hope that discrimination and heavy-handedness would be rooted out. The confidence in the British army, however, had vanished by April 1970, when British forces used gas canisters to quell a Catholic demonstration at Ballymurphy and later in July imposed a curfew to search for weapons in the Catholic district of Lower Falls.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Alpha History |date=2020-08-02 |title=Operation Banner: the British Army in Northern Ireland |url=https://alphahistory.com/northernireland/operation-banner/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=Northern Ireland |language=en-US}}</ref> The main opposition to the British military's deployment came from the Provisional Irish Republican Army (PIRA). It waged [[Provisional Irish Republican Army campaign 1969–1997|a guerrilla campaign]] against the British military [[Chronology of Provisional Irish Republican Army actions|from 1970 to 1997]].

During the Troubles, British Army personnel have been accused of war crimes,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Fisk|first=Robert|date=16 May 2019|title=From the Middle East to Northern Ireland, western states are all too happy to avoid culpability for war crimes {{!}} The Independent|url=https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:J2aK0wK7LwUJ:https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/amnesty-war-crime-britain-us-trump-michael-behenna-pardon-iraq-a8916346.html+&cd=13&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=ar|access-date=2021-10-30|website=webcachewww.googleusercontentindependent.comco.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=13 April 2021|title=British House of Lords votes down controversial 'war crimes' bill {{!}} Tamil Guardian|url=https://www.tamilguardian.com/content/british-house-lords-votes-down-controversial-war-crimes-bill|access-date=2021-10-31|website=www.tamilguardian.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Black |first=Rebecca |date=2021-09-25 |title=Protests take place across Ireland against British legacy proposals over Troubles |url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/politics/arid-40706420.html |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=Irish Examiner |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Murphy |first=Patrick |date=24 July 2021 |title=Amnesty proposal is Nothing New for Britain - Patrick Murphy, Irish News |url=https://www.truthrecoveryprocess.ie/newsupdates/amnesty-proposal-is-nothing-new-for-britain-patrick-murphy-irish-news |access-date=2023-03-11 |website=[[Irish News]] |publisher=Truth Recovery Process |language=en-IE}}</ref> mainly in nationalist areas. The deadliest incident happened in January 1972 on [[Bloody Sunday (1972)|Bloody Sunday]], when British paratroopers killed 14 civilians and injured several more at a protest held by the [[Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association]] (NICRA). Another major incident took place at [[Ballymurphy massacre|Ballymurphy]], Belfast, where eleven [[Irish Catholics]] were killed by British Army snipers in August 1971.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Robinson|first=Joseph|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oqAvDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Northern+Ireland%22+%22war+crimes%22+%22Bloody+Sunday%22&pg=PT164|title=Transitional Justice and the Politics of Inscription: Memory, Space and Narrative in Northern Ireland|publisher=Routledge|year=2017|isbn=978-1-351-96676-4|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-10-18|title=How a generation recalls the reality of Belfast's streets in 1971|url=http://www.theguardian.com/film/2014/oct/19/71-vivid-memories-of-the-troubles|access-date=2021-10-31|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> In the course of the already mentioned [[Falls Curfew]], in July 1970, four civilians were shot dead and at least 60 wounded.<ref name="hennessey">Hennessey, Thomas. ''The evolution of the Troubles, 1970–72''. Irish Academic Press, 2007. pp. 40–41</ref> Later in the conflict, there were other attacks against civilians involving the British Army, like the [[1992 Coalisland riots|riots in Coalisland]] in 1992<ref>{{Cite web |last=McKittrick |first=David |date=17 May 1993 |title=Coalisland 'soldiers not entirely innocent': Five paratroopers bound |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/coalisland-soldiers-not-entirely-innocent-five-paratroopers-bound-over-by-court-2323551.html |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> or the killings of [[Pitchfork murders|Michael Naan and Andrew Murray]] in [[County Fermanagh]] in 1972,<ref>{{Citation |title=Murder: The Killing of Michael Naan and Andrew Murray |date=2018 |work=An Army of Tribes: British Army Cohesion, Deviancy and Murder in Northern Ireland |pages=227–332 |editor-last=Burke |editor-first=Edward |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/an-army-of-tribes/murder-the-killing-of-michael-naan-and-andrew-murray/98705B97D7E726655F0A1F7D500A2267 |access-date=2023-11-27 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-1-78694-097-1}}</ref> [[Killing of Majella O'Hare|Majella O'Hare]] in [[County Armagh]] in 19721976, [[Aidan McAnespie]] in [[County Tyrone]] in 1988<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kearney |first=Vincent |date=2022-11-25 |title=Ex-soldier guilty of manslaughter of Aidan McAnespie |url=https://www.rte.ie/news/courts/2022/1125/1338213-aidan-mcanespie/ |journal=RTÉ |language=en}}</ref> and Peter McBride in Belfast in 1992.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Greenslade |first=Roy |date=2003-09-10 |title=Roy Greenslade: Remember Peter McBride? |url=http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2003/sep/10/northernireland.northernireland |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

===Collusion between British security forces and loyalist paramilitaries===

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==War on Terror==

{{See also|Battle of Danny Boy|Iraq Inquiry|Afghan Unlawful Killings inquiry}}

The [[Human Rights Watch]] reported that the [[Government of the United Kingdom|UK government]] sought the overseas operations bill to stop the prosecution of British soldiers for torture and other war crimes committed overseas. Under this bill the power of the attorney general, a member of the government, had more power to protect soldiers from prosecution whether with a genuine case or not.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/09/23/uk-seeks-stop-justice-war-crimes|title=UK Seeks to Stop Justice for War Crimes|access-date=23 September 2020|website=Human Rights Watch|date=23 September 2020}}</ref>

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[[Corporal Donald Payne]], a former soldier of the [[Queen's Lancashire Regiment]] of the British Army, became the first member of the British armed forces to be convicted of a war crime under the provisions of the International Criminal Court Act 2001. He was jailed for one year and dismissed from the army. In June 2020, [[Johnny Mercer (politician)|Johnny Mercer]] said that Operation Northmoor had been completed and no more British troops would be prosecuted over alleged war crimes in [[Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/06/20/british-troopswill-not-facecourts-overafghan-conflict-says-minister/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/06/20/british-troopswill-not-facecourts-overafghan-conflict-says-minister/ |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title= British troops will not face courts over Afghan conflict, says minister |access-date=20 June 2020|website=The Telegraph|date= 20 June 2020 |last1= Mendick |first1= Robert }}{{cbignore}}</ref>

===Iraq War===

{{Seealso|Casualties of the Iraq War}}

During the [[Iraq War]], the illegal use of the [[five techniques]] by British service members contributed to the [[death of Baha Mousa]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-14825889 "Baha Mousa inquiry: 'Serious discipline breach' by army"]. ''BBC News''. 8 September 2011.</ref> On 19 September 2006, Corporal [[Donald Payne (British Army soldier)|Donald Payne]] pleaded guilty to a charge of inhumane treatment to persons, making him the first member of the British armed forces to plead guilty to a war crime.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-2365393,00.html | title=British soldier is first to admit war crime | author=Devika Bhat |author2=Jenny Booth | date=September 19, 2006 | work=Times Online | location=London}}{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> He was subsequently jailed for one year and expelled from the army. Six other soldiers were cleared of any charges.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6609237.stm | title=UK soldier jailed over Iraq abuse | work=BBC News | date=30 April 2007 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070915051032/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/6609237.stm | archive-date=2007-09-15 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[Stuart McKinnon|Mr Justice McKinnon]] suggested that he believed there had been some level of covering-up with relation to the case.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/the-victims-of-war-93-injuries-one-killing-no-justice-440756.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091227073748/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/the-victims-of-war-93-injuries-one-killing-no-justice-440756.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=27 December 2009 | title=The victims of war: 93 injuries, one killing, no justice | work=The Independent | date=18 March 2007 | location=London | first=Raymond | last=Whitaker}}</ref> In 2021, the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]] found that the use of the five techniques amounts to [[torture]].<ref>[https://www.supremecourt.uk/cases/docs/uksc-2020-0019-judgment.pdf "Judgement - In the matter of an application by Margaret McQuillan for Judicial Review (Northern Ireland) (Nos 1, 2 and 3) In the matter of an application by Francis McGuigan for Judicial Review (Northern Ireland) (Nos 1, 2 and 3) In the matter of an application by Mary McKenna for Judicial Review (Northern Ireland) (Nos 1 and 2)" para. 186-188]</ref>

===Afghanistan War===

{{Seealso|Civilian casualties in the war in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|Afghan unlawful killings inquiry}}

In September 2013,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-24888089|title=Marine guilty of Afghanistan murder|work=BBC News|date=8 November 2013|access-date=9 November 2013}}</ref> [[Royal Marines]] Sergeant [[Alexander Blackman]], formerly of [[Taunton]], [[Somerset]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-25232808|title=Marine convicted of Afghan murder named|work=BBC News|date=5 December 2013|access-date=5 December 2013}}</ref> was convicted at court martial of having murdered an unarmed, wounded [[Taliban]] insurgent during the [[Helmand province campaign]]. On 6 December 2013, Sgt. Blackman received a sentence of [[life imprisonment]] with a minimum of ten years before being eligible for parole. He was also [[Dishonourable discharge#Naval Service|dismissed with disgrace]] from the Royal Marines.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/royal-marine-sgt-alexander-blackman-jailed-for-life-for-murder-of-afghan-insurgent-8988983.html|title=Royal Marine Sgt Alexander Blackman jailed for life for murder of Afghan insurgent|work=The Independent|date=6 December 2013 |access-date=6 December 2013}}</ref>

In April 2017, following an appeal that saw his conviction reduced to manslaughter, Blackman was released from prison having served three years of his sentence.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/amp/uk-39740931|title=Jailed marine Alexander Blackman freed from prison|work=BBC News|date=28 April 2017 |access-date=1 May 2017}}</ref>

In July 2022, a BBC investigation said that unarmed men were repeatedly killed by [[Special Air Service|SAS]] operatives in suspicious circumstances, focusing in particular on a series of night raids conducted by one squadron over the course of its six-month tour in [[Helmand Province]] in 2010/11 which may have led to the unlawful killings 54 people.<ref name=bbcprobe>{{Cite news |date=2022-07-12 |title=SAS unit repeatedly killed Afghan detainees, BBC finds |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-62083196 |access-date=2022-07-12}}</ref> The investigators also said that personnel at the highest echelon of the UK’s special forces including its former director [[Mark Carleton-Smith]] were aware of the allegations, but did not report them to the military police when they conducted two investigations involving alleged offences committed by the squadron, despite a legal obligation to do so.<ref name=bbcprobe/>

On 22 March 2023, an [[Afghan unlawful killings inquiry|inquiry]] was opened into unlawful killings in Afghanistan.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hui |first=Sylvia |date=2023-03-22 |title=UK opens inquiry into unlawful killing claims in Afghanistan |url=https://apnews.com/article/uk-afghanistan-inquiry-unlawful-killings-b5c98d832d2b1d8382a3b1bcaf4da9cc |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327224815/https://apnews.com/article/uk-afghanistan-inquiry-unlawful-killings-b5c98d832d2b1d8382a3b1bcaf4da9cc |archive-date=2023-03-27 |access-date=2023-03-27 |website=[[Associated Press]] |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==