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Line 113: The [[Settlement of the Americas|first inhabitants of North America]] are generally hypothesized to have migrated from [[Siberia]] by way of the [[Beringia|Bering land bridge]] and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dillehay |first=Thomas D. |title=The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory |publisher=Basic Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7867-2543-4 |page=61}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fagan |first1=Brian M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMneCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124 |title=World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction |last2=Durrani |first2=Nadia |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-34244-1 |page=124}}</ref> The [[Paleo-Indian]] archeological sites at [[Old Crow Flats]] and [[Bluefish Caves]] are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rawat |first=Rajiv |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AwlYiuPAX-UC&pg=PT58 |title=Circumpolar Health Atlas |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4426-4456-4 |page=58}}</ref> The [[Technological and industrial history of Canada#The Stone Age: Fire (14,000 BC – AD 1600)|characteristics of Indigenous societies]] included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hayes |first=Derek |title=Canada: An Illustrated History |publisher=Douglas & Mcintyre |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55365-259-5 |pages=7, 13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Macklem |first=Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=quM1xyFyfhQC&pg=PA170 |title=Indigenous Difference and the Constitution of Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8020-4195-1 |page=170}}</ref> Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sonneborn |first=Liz |title=Chronology of American Indian History |date=January 2007 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-0-8160-6770-1 |pages=2–12}}</ref> [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada]] include the [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]], [[Inuit]], and [[Métis people in Canada|Métis]],<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012">{{Cite book |last1=Graber |first1=Christoph Beat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5dv2d57n52MC&pg=PA366 |title=International Trade in Indigenous Cultural Heritage: Legal and Policy Issues |last2=Kuprecht |first2=Karolina |last3=Lai |first3=Jessica C. |author-link3=Jessica Lai |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-85793-831-2 |page=366}}</ref> the last being of [[mixed-blood|mixed descent]] who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.<ref name="GraberKuprecht2012" />[[File:Indigenous population by census division.svg|upright=1.3|thumb|A map of Canada showing the percent of [[Population of Canada#Indigenous peoples|self-reported indigenous identity]] (First Nations, Inuit, Métis) by census division, according to the [[2021 Canadian census]]<ref name="Statistics Canada 2022 u867">{{cite web |title=Census Program Data Viewer dashboard |website=Statistics Canada |date=February 9, 2022 |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/cpdv-vdpr/index-eng.cfm |access-date=February 3, 2024|archive-date=January 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125123112/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/dv-vd/cpdv-vdpr/index-eng.cfm |url-status=live}}</ref>]] The [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous population]] at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000<ref name="dying">{{Cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Donna M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_pMVs53mzQC&pg=PA25 |title=Dying and Death in Canada |last2=Northcott |first2=Herbert C |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-55111-873-4 |pages=25–27}}</ref> and two million,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thornton |first=Russell |title=A population history of North America |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-49666-7 |editor-last=Haines |editor-first=Michael R |pages=13, 380 |chapter=Population history of Native North Americans |editor-last2=Steckel |editor-first2=Richard Hall}}</ref> with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's [[Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Donnell |first=C. Vivian |title=Indians in Contemporary Society |publisher=Government Printing Office |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-16-080388-8 |editor-last=Bailey |editor-first=Garrick Alan |series=Handbook of North American Indians |volume=2 |page=285 |chapter=Native Populations of Canada |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1IwUbZqjTUC&pg=PA285}}</ref> As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent Although not without conflict, [[European Canadians]]' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Preston |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L-9N6-6UCnoC&pg=PA43 |title=The Texture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667–1783 |publisher=[[University of Nebraska Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8032-2549-7 |pages=43–44}}</ref> First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of [[Former colonies and territories in Canada|European colonies in Canada]], particularly for their role in assisting European [[coureur des bois|coureurs des bois]] and [[voyageurs]] in their explorations of the continent during the [[North American fur trade]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=J.R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TcPckf7snr8C&pg=PT34 |title=Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-Making in Canada |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4426-9227-5 |page=34}}</ref> These early European interactions with First Nations would change from [[Peace and Friendship Treaties|friendship and peace treaties]] to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.<ref name="Williams 2021 p. 51">{{cite book |last=Williams |first=L. |title=Indigenous Intergenerational Resilience: Confronting Cultural and Ecological Crisis |publisher=Taylor & Francis |series=Routledge Studies in Indigenous Peoples and Policy |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-000-47233-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HehEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT51 |page=51}}</ref><ref name="Turner 2020 p. 14">{{cite book |last=Turner |first=N.J. |title=Plants, People, and Places: The Roles of Ethnobotany and Ethnoecology in Indigenous Peoples' Land Rights in Canada and Beyond |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |series=McGill-Queen's Indigenous and Northern Studies |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-2280-0317-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JVjZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |page=14}}</ref> From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Asch |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9Uae4mTTyYYC&pg=PA28 |title=Aboriginal and Treaty Rights in Canada: Essays on Law, Equity, and Respect for Difference |publisher=UBC Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7748-0581-0 |page=28}}</ref> [[Settler colonialism in Canada|These attempts]] reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ===European colonization=== | |||