Climate change in Australia: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia


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[[Climate change]] has been a critical issue in [[Australia]] since the beginning of the 21st century. Australia is becoming hotter and more prone to extreme heat, [[Bushfires in Australia|bushfires]], droughts, floods, and longer fire seasons because of climate change. Climate issues include [[Bushfires in Australia|wildfires]], [[heatwaves]], [[Tropical cyclones and climate change|cyclones]], [[rising sea levels]], and [[erosion]].<ref name=":342" /><ref name=":53">{{Cite journal |last1=Nursey-Bray |first1=Melissa |last2=Palmer |first2=R. |last3=Smith |first3=T. F. |last4=Rist |first4=P. |date=2019-05-04 |title=Old ways for new days: Australian Indigenous peoples and climate change |journal=Local Environment |volume=24 |issue=5 |pages=473–486 |doi=10.1080/13549839.2019.1590325 |bibcode=2019LoEnv..24..473N |issn=1354-9839 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal |last=Ford |first=James D. |date=July 2012 |title=Indigenous Health and Climate Change |journal=American Journal of Public Health |volume=102 |issue=7 |pages=1260–1266 |doi=10.2105/AJPH.2012.300752 |issn=0090-0036 |pmc=3477984 |pmid=22594718}}</ref>

<!--Temperature and weather changes-->Since the beginning of the 20th century, Australia has experienced an increase of over 1.4&nbsp;°C in average annual temperatures,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Australia's changing climate|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/state-of-the-climate/australias-changing-climate.shtml|title=Australia's changing climate|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> with warming occurring at twice the rate over the past 50 years compared with the previous 50 years.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/pid/7276.htm|title=Ten Commitments Revisited|publisher=CSIRO Publishing|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4863-0167-6|editor1=Lindenmayer, David|editor2=Dovers, Stephen|editor3=Morton, Steve}}</ref> Recent climate events such as extremely high temperatures and widespread drought have focused government and public attention on the effects of '''climate change in Australia'''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/03/world/asia/03iht-australia.2.7732980.html|title=Climate change becomes urgent security issue in Australia|last=Johnston|first=Tim|date=3 October 2007|newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=29 June 2011}}</ref> Rainfall in [[southwestern Australia]] has decreased by 10–20% since the 1970s, while southeastern Australia has also experienced a moderate decline since the 1990s. Rainfall is expected to become heavier and more infrequent, as well as more common in summer rather than in winter. Australia's annual average temperatures are projected to increase 0.4–2.0&nbsp;°C above 1990 levels by the year 2030, and 1–6&nbsp;°C by 2070. Average precipitation in the southwest and southeast Australia is projected to decline during this time, while regions such as the northwest may experience increases in rainfall.

<!--Impacts on natural environment-->Climate change is [[Effects of climate change|affecting]] the continent's environment and ecosystems. Australia is vulnerable to the effects of global warming projected for the next 50 to 100 years because of its extensive arid and semi-arid areas, and already [[Climate of Australia|warm climate]], high annual rainfall variability. The continent's high fire risk increases this susceptibility to changes in temperature and climate. Meanwhile, Australia's coastlines will experience erosion and inundation from an estimated 8–88&nbsp;cm increase in global sea level. Australia's unique ecosystems such as the [[Great Barrier Reef]] and many [[Fauna of Australia|animal species]] are also at risk.

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=== Temperature and weather changes ===

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| caption1 = Current/past [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Australia for 1980–2016▼

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| caption2 = 2071–2100 map under [[Representative Concentration Pathway|the most intense climate change scenario]]. Mid-range scenarios are currently considered more likely<ref name="HausfatherPeters2020">{{cite journal|last1=Hausfather|first1=Zeke|last2=Peters|first2=Glen|title=Emissions – the 'business as usual' story is misleading|journal=Nature|date=29 January 2020|volume=577|issue=7792|pages=618–20|doi=10.1038/d41586-020-00177-3|pmid=31996825|bibcode=2020Natur.577..618H|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Schuur2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Schuur |first1=Edward A.G. |last2=Abbott |first2=Benjamin W. |last3=Commane |first3=Roisin |last4=Ernakovich |first4=Jessica |last5=Euskirchen |first5=Eugenie |last6=Hugelius |first6=Gustaf |last7=Grosse |first7=Guido |last8=Jones |first8=Miriam |last9=Koven |first9=Charlie |last10=Leshyk |first10=Victor |last11=Lawrence |first11=David |last12=Loranty |first12=Michael M. |last13=Mauritz |first13=Marguerite |last14=Olefeldt |first14=David |last15=Natali |first15=Susan |last16=Rodenhizer |first16=Heidi |last17=Salmon |first17=Verity |last18=Schädel |first18=Christina |last19=Strauss |first19=Jens |last20=Treat |first20=Claire |last21=Turetsky |first21=Merritt |year=2022 |title=Permafrost and Climate Change: Carbon Cycle Feedbacks From the Warming Arctic |journal=Annual Review of Environment and Resources |volume=47 |pages=343–371 |doi=10.1146/annurev-environ-012220-011847 |quote="Medium-range estimates of Arctic carbon emissions could result from moderate climate emission mitigation policies that keep global warming below 3°C (e.g., RCP4.5). This global warming level most closely matches country emissions reduction pledges made for the Paris Climate Agreement..." |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Phiddian2022">{{Cite web |last=Phiddian |first=Ellen |date=5 April 2022 |title=Explainer: IPCC Scenarios |url=https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |website=[[Cosmos (magazine)|Cosmos]] |access-date=30 September 2023 |quote="The IPCC doesn’t make projections about which of these scenarios is more likely, but other researchers and modellers can. [[The Australian Academy of Science]], for instance, released a report last year stating that our current emissions trajectory had us headed for a 3°C warmer world, roughly in line with the middle scenario. [[Climate Action Tracker]] predicts 2.5 to 2.9°C of warming based on current policies and action, with pledges and government agreements taking this to 2.1°C. |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920224129/https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/climate/explainer-ipcc-scenarios/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

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Australia's instrumental record from 1885 to the present shows the following broad picture:

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According to the [[Bureau of Meteorology]]'s 2011 Australian Climate Statement, Australia had lower than average temperatures in 2011 as a consequence of a [[La Niña]] weather pattern; however, "the country's 10-year average continues to demonstrate the rising trend in temperatures, with 2002–2011 likely to rank in the top two warmest 10-year periods on record for Australia, at {{convert|0.52|C-change|2}} above the long-term average".<ref>{{cite web|date=4 January 2012|title=Annual Australian Climate Statement 2011|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/announcements/media_releases/climate/change/20120104.shtml|access-date=15 April 2012|publisher=Bom.gov.au}}</ref> Furthermore, 2014 was Australia's third warmest year since national temperature observations commenced in 1910.<ref>{{cite web|date=6 January 2015|title=Annual climate statement of 2014|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/aus/|access-date=2 February 2014|work=[[Bureau of Meteorology]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=21 January 2015|title=2014 was Australia's warmest year on record: BoM|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-01-06/bureau-weather-wrap-2014/6001826|access-date=2 February 2015|work=[[ABC (Australia)|ABC Online]]}}</ref>

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▲| caption1 = Current/past [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Australia for 1980–2016

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| caption2 = Worst case prediction [[Köppen climate classification]] map for Australia for 2071–2100 (scenario [[RCP8.5]])

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=== Sea level rise ===

[[File:Melbourne, Australia Population Density and Low Elevation Coastal Zones (5457913124).jpg|thumb|Melbourne population density and low elevation coastal zones]]

The Australian Government released a report saying that up to 247,600 houses are at risk from flooding from a [[sea level rise]] of 1.1 metres. There were 39,000 buildings located within 110 metres of 'soft' erodible shorelines, at risk from a faster erosion due to sea level rise.<ref>DCC (2009), Climate Change Risks to Australia's coasts, Canberra.</ref> Adaptive responses to this specific climate change threat are often incorporated in the coastal planning policies and recommendations at the state level.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Climate Change and the Coast: Building Resilient Communities|last1=Glavovic|first1=Bruce|last2=Kelly|first2=Mick|last3=Kay|first3=Mick|last4=Travers|first4=Aibhe|publisher=CRC Press|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4822-8858-2|location=Boca Raton, FL|page=257}}</ref> For instance, the [[Western Australia]] State Coastal Planning Policy established a sea level rise benchmark for initiatives that address the problem over a 100-year period.<ref name=":1"/> Lower projections indicate that sea levels will rise by 40 to 90 &nbsp;cm upon the end of the century <ref name=":14">{{cite journal |last1=Ide |first1=Tobias |title=Climate change and Australia's national security|journal=Australian Journal of Internal Affairs |date=25 January 2023 |volume=77 |issue=1 |pagepages=26-4426–44 |doi=10.1080/10357718.2023.2170978|s2cid=256293743 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Water (droughts and floods) ===

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* 80% loss of freshwater wetlands in [[Kakadu National Park|Kakadu]] (30&nbsp;cm sea level rise).<ref>Hare, W., (2003) Assessment of Knowledge on Impacts of Climate Change – Contribution to the Specification of Art. 2 of the UNFCCC, WGBU, Berlin, [http://www.wbgu.de/wbgu_sn2003_ex01.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213092330/http://www.wbgu.de/wbgu_sn2003_ex01.pdf|date=13 December 2007}}</ref>

A study conducted in 2024, suggests that worsening climate scenarios may have significant impacts on the habitat area for vertebrates and vascular plant species in Australia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Archibald |first1=Carla L |last2=Summers |first2=David M |last3=Graham |first3=Erin |last4=Bryan |first4=Brett |title=Habitat suitability maps for Australian flora and fauna under CMIP6 climate scenarios |journal=GigaScience |date=2024 |volume=13 |doi=10.1093/gigascience/giae002 |urlpmid=https://academic.oup.com/gigascience/article/doi/10.1093/gigascience/giae002/7619364#44285741238442145 |pmc=10939329 }}</ref> This data suggests that in 2030, the habitat area among species appears consistent across climate scenarios, however, by 2090, a significant change is predicted, as deteriorating climate conditions are associated with reductions in habitat area for biodiversity.

====Great Barrier Reef====

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According to the [[Climate Commission]] (now the [[Climate Council]]) report in 2013, the extreme heatwaves, flooding and bushfires striking Australia have been intensified by climate change and will get worse in future in terms of their impacts on people, property, communities and the environment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Peel|first1=Jacquiline|title=Climate Change Litigation|last2=Osofsky|first2=Hari|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-107-03606-2|location=Cambridge|page=115}}</ref> The [[Angry Summer|summer of 2012/2013]] included the hottest summer, hottest month and hottest day on record. The cost of the 2009 bushfires in Victoria was estimated at A$4.4bn (£3bn) and the [[2010–11 Queensland floods|Queensland floods of 2010/2011]] cost over A$5bn.<ref>[http://climatecommission.gov.au/report/extreme-weather/ The Critical Decade: Extreme Weather] Climate Commission Australia. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405015445/http://climatecommission.gov.au/report/extreme-weather |date=5 April 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=key facts|url=http://climatecommission.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/Extreme-Report-Key-Facts.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130419074215/http://climatecommission.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/Extreme-Report-Key-Facts.pdf|archive-date=2013-04-19}}</ref><ref>[http://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/apr/02/climate-change-carbon-emissions-australia Climate change making extreme events worse in Australia – report] The Guardian 2.4.2013</ref>

In 2008 the Treasurer and the [[Minister for Climate Change and Water]] released a report that concluded the economy will grow with an [[emissions trading scheme]] in place.<ref>[{{Cite web|url=http://www.treasury.gov.au/lowpollutionfuture/ Australia's Low Pollution Future: The Economics of Climate Change Mitigation] {{webarchive|urlarchiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100718083633/http://www.treasury.gov.au/lowpollutionfuture/|dateurl-status=dead|title=Australia's Low Pollution Future: The Economics of Climate Change Mitigation|archivedate=18 July 2010|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref>

A report released in October 2009 by the Standing Committee on Climate Change, Water, Environment and the Arts, studying the effects of a 1-metre sea level rise, quite possible within the next 30–60 years, concluded that around 700,000 properties around Australia, including 80,000 buildings, would be inundated, the collective value of these properties is estimated at $155 billion.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Herald Sun'', "Victoria's Stormy Forecast", Oct, 28, 2009</ref>

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==== Electricity demand ====

Use of domestic [[Air conditioning|air conditioners]] during severe heatwaves can double electricity demand, placing great stress on electricity generation and transmission networks, and lead to [[load shedding]].<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-11-29/heatwave-pushes-power-grid-to-the-limit-electricity/12930308 Electricity supplies under pressure due to heatwave, energy market operator warns] ''ABC News'', 29 November 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2020.</ref> In addition, [[Wildfire|bushfires]] can damage electricity lines, while repairing power poles and power line damages is often restricted during hot and dry weather because of high fire risks.<ref>{{Cite web |title=2020 Integrated System Plan (ISP) |url=https://aemo.com.au/energy-systems/major-publications/integrated-system-plan-isp/2020-integrated-system-plan-isp |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=aemo.com.au |language=en}}</ref>

=== Impacts on housing ===

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Global warming could lead to substantial alterations in climate extremes, such as tropical cyclones, heat waves and severe precipitation events. This would degrade infrastructure and raise costs through intensified energy demands, maintenance for damaged transportation infrastructure, and disasters, such as [[coastal flooding]].<ref name="Preston_Jones" />{{rp|5}} In the coastal zone, [[sea level rise]] and storm surge may be more critical drivers of these changes than either temperature or precipitation.<ref name="Preston_Jones" />{{rp|20}}

The CSIRO describes the additional impact on settlements and infrastructure for rises in temperature of only 1 to 2&nbsp;°C: A 22% rise in 100-year storm surge height around [[Cairns]]; as a result, the area flooded doubles.<ref name="McInnes" />

* A 22% rise in 100-year storm surge height around [[Cairns]]; as a result, the area flooded doubles.<ref name="McInnes" />

====Human settlements====

Climate change will have a higher impact on Australia's coastal communities, due to the concentration of population, commerce and industry. Climate modelling suggests that a temperature rise of 1–2&nbsp;°C will result in more intense storm winds, including those from tropical cyclones.<ref>Coleman, T. (2002) The impact of climate change on insurance against catastrophes. Proceedings of Living with Climate Change Conference. Canberra, 19 December.</ref> Combine this with sea level rise, and the result is greater flooding, due to higher levels of storm surge and wind speed.<ref>{{Cite Coleman,book T.|last1=CSIRO (2002)|title=Climate Change in Australia: Projections for Australia's NRM Regions |last2=BoM |date=2015 |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |location=Canberra}}</ref> The impact of climate change on insurance against catastrophes. Proceedings of Living with Climate Change Conference. Canberra, 19 December.) Tourism of coastal areas may also be affected by coastal inundation and [[Coastal erosion|beach erosion]], as a result of sea level rise and storm events. At higher levels of warming, coastal impacts become more severe with higher storm winds and sea levels.

====Property====

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A 1-metre sea level rise would have massive impacts, not just on property and associated economic systems, but in displacement of human populations throughout the continent. Queensland is the state most at risk due to the presence of valuable beachfront housing.<ref name="agce">{{Cite news|date=13 November 2009|title=At a glance: Coastal erosion & Australia|work=SBS|url=http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1131502/At-a-glance-Costal-erosion-Australia|access-date=26 January 2011|archive-date=21 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021084610/http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/1131502/At-a-glance-Costal-erosion-Australia|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Impacts on foreign policy and national security ===

Several prominent reports and decision makers are concerned that climate change affects Australia’s [[national security]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Senate of Australia: Foreign Affairs, Defence and Trade References Committee |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/Committees/Senate/Foreign_Affairs_Defence_and_Trade/Nationalsecurity/Final_Report |title=Implications of climate change for Australia's national security |date=17 May 2018 |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |year=2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Climate change poses a 'direct threat' to Australia's national security. It must be a political priority {{!}} ANU Institute for Climate, Energy & Disaster Solutions |url=https://iceds.anu.edu.au/news-events/news/climate-change-poses-%E2%80%98direct-threat%E2%80%99-australia%E2%80%99s-national-security-it-must-be |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=iceds.anu.edu.au |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last1=Glasser |first1=Robert |url=https://www.aspi.org.au/report/geopolitics-climate-and-security-indo-pacific |title=The geopolitics of climate and security in the Indo-Pacific |last2=Kapetas |first2=Anastasia |last3=Leben |first3=William |last4=Johnstone |first4=Cathy |date=24 February 2022 |publisher=ASPI |year=2022 |location=Canberra |publication-date=24 February 2022}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite book |last=Australian Security Leaders Climate Group |url=https://www.aslcg.org/reports/too-hot-to-handle/ |title=Too hot to handle: The scorching reality of Australia's climate–security failure |date=2 May 2024 |publisher=Australian Security Leaders Climate Group |year=2024 |location=Canberra |publication-date=2 May 2024}}</ref> A 2023 assessment of the Australian [[Office of National Intelligence]] on the security implications of climate change (commissioned by [[Anthony Albanese]]) remains classified.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hurst |first=Daniel |date=2023-08-29 |title=Too hot to handle: climate crisis report so secret Albanese government won't even reveal date it was completed |url=https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2023/aug/30/office-of-national-intelligence-climate-crisis-security-threats-report-anthony-albanese-labor-government-refuses-to-release |access-date=2024-05-26 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> These concerns are tied to broader debates about [[climate security]].

Climate change is unlikely to trigger large-scale [[Human migration|migration]] movements to Australia. Research shows that people adversely affected by climate change often lack the resources to migrate over large distances (they are adapt in-situ or move to nearby places).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cottier |first1=Fabien |last2=Salehyan |first2=Idean |date=2021-07-01 |title=Climate variability and irregular migration to the European Union |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378021000546 |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=69 |pages=102275 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102275 |bibcode=2021GEC....6902275C |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> This is particularly the case for Australia, which is an island nation with [[Immigration to Australia|tough border controls and immigration policies]].<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":16" />

Climate change can cause major challenges to Australia’s foreign policies. Pacific Island countries, which are highly vulnerable to climate change, have repeatedly blamed Australia for not being active enough in [[Climate change mitigation|mitigating]] climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Moore |first=Liam |date=2024-02-13 |title=A dysfunctional family: Australia's relationship with Pacific Island states and climate change |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10357718.2024.2316098 |journal=Australian Journal of International Affairs |volume=78 |issue=3 |language=en |pages=286–305 |doi=10.1080/10357718.2024.2316098 |issn=1035-7718}}</ref> With geopolitical tensions between [[Australia–China relations|Australia and China]] on the rise, these countries are of high relevance for the Australian government.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Geopolitical duel in the Pacific: Solomon Islands security at risk as Australia and China compete {{!}} Lowy Institute |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/geopolitical-duel-pacific-solomon-islands-security-risk-australia-china-compete |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=www.lowyinstitute.org |language=en}}</ref> In addition, existing data suggest that several countries in Australia’s neighbourhood (e.g., [[Indonesia]], [[Philippines|the Philippines]], large parts of [[South Asia]]) and some key partner governments (e.g., [[India]], [[Papua New Guinea]]) are very vulnerable to climate-related unrest and conflict.<ref name=":14" />

Several reports also warn that climate change poses significant challenges to the capacities of the [[Australian Defence Force]]. Many military bases are located close to the coastline, which is threatened by [[Sea level rise|sea-level rise]] and more intense storms. Civilian infrastructure relevant to military operations (like transports networks and power lines) is also adversely affected by climate change, for instance when [[Flood|floods]] wash away key supply roads. More extreme heat days complicate military training and put a heavier toll on equipment, particularly in northern Australia. Finally, the [[Australian Defence Force]] will be called upon more often to provide disaster relief within the country and internationally, further straining its resources.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Barrie |first1=Chris |url=https://www.climatecouncil.org.au/resources/securityreport2015/ |title=Be Prepared: Climate Change, Security and Australia's Defence Force |last2=Steffen |first2=Will |last3=Pearce |first3=Alix |last4=Thomas |first4=Michael |date=2015 |publisher=Climate Council of Australia |location=Sydney |publication-date=2015}}</ref>

=== Health impacts ===

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=== Impacts on indigenous Australians ===

{{See also|Climate change and indigenous peoples|Indigenous Australians}}

[[Indigenous Australians]] have a millennia long history of responding and adapting to social and environmental changes. Indigenous Australians have a high level of situated [[traditional knowledge]] and historical knowledge about climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nursey-Bray|first1=Melissa|last2=Palmer|first2=Robert|date=2018-03-01|title=Country, climate change adaptation and colonisation: insights from an Indigenous adaptation planning process, Australia|url= |journal=Heliyon|language=en|volume=4|issue=3|pages=e00565|doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2018.e00565|doi-access=free |issn=2405-8440|pmc=5968082|pmid=29862336|bibcode=2018Heliy...400565N }}</ref> However, the exposure of Indigenous Australians to climate change impacts is exacerbated by existing socio-economic disadvantages which are linked to colonial and post-colonial marginalisation.<ref name=":342" />

Some of these changes include a rise in sea levels, getting hotter and for a longer period of time, and more severe cyclones during the cyclone season.<ref name=":23" /> Climate issues include [[Bushfires in Australia|wild fires]], [[Heat wave|heatwaves]], [[flood]]s, [[cyclone]]s, [[Sea level rise|rising sea levels]], [[Climate change|rising temperatures]], and [[erosion]].<ref name=":342"/><ref name=":53" /><ref name=":62" /> The communities most affected by climate changes are those in the North where Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people make up 30% of the population.<ref name=":23" /> [[Aboriginal Australians]] and Torres Strait Islander communities located in the coastal north are the most disadvantaged due to social and economic issues and their reliance on traditional land for food, culture, and health. This has begged the question for many community members in these regions, should they move away from this area or remain present.<ref name=":23" />

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Many of the economic, political, and social-ecological issues present in indigenous communities are long term effects from colonialism and the continued marginalization of these communities. These issues are aggravated by climate change and environmental changes in their respective regions.<ref name=":62" /><ref name=":122">{{Cite journal|last1=Belfer|first1=Ella|last2=Ford|first2=James D.|last3=Maillet|first3=Michelle|date=2017|title=Representation of Indigenous peoples in climate change reporting|journal=Climatic Change|volume=145|issue=1|pages=57–70|bibcode=2017ClCh..145...57B|doi=10.1007/s10584-017-2076-z|issn=0165-0009|pmc=6560471|pmid=31258222}}</ref> Indigenous people are seen as particularly [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]] because they already live in poverty, poor housing and have poor educational and health services, other socio-political factors place them at risk for climate change impacts.<ref name=":53" /> Indigenous people have been portrayed as victims and as vulnerable populations for many years by the media.<ref name=":62" /><ref name=":122" /> Aboriginal Australians believe that they have always been able to adapt to climate changes in their geographic areas.<ref name=":53" />

Many communities have argued for more community input into strategies and ways to adapt to climate issues instead of top down approaches to combating issues surrounding environmental change.<ref name=":110">{{Cite journal|last1=Petheram|first1=L.|last2=Zander|first2=K. K.|last3=Campbell|first3=B. M.|last4=High|first4=C.|last5=Stacey|first5=N.|date=2010-10-01|title='Strange changes': Indigenous perspectives of climate change and adaptation in NE Arnhem Land (Australia)|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378010000427|journal=Global Environmental Change|series=20th Anniversary Special Issue|language=en|volume=20|issue=4|pages=681–692|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.05.002|bibcode=2010GEC....20..681P |issn=0959-3780}}</ref><ref name=":23"/> This includes self-determination and agency when deciding how to respond to climate change including proactive actions.<ref name=":23" /> Indigenous people have also commented on the need to maintain their physical and mental well-being in order to adapt to climate change which can be helped through the kinship relationships between community members and the land they occupy.<ref name=":110" />

In Australia, Aboriginal people have argued that in order for the government to combat climate change, their voices must be included in policy making and governance over traditional land.<ref name=":122" /><ref name=":62" /><ref name=":110" /> Much of the government and institutional policies related to climate change and [[environmental issues in Australia]] has been done so through a top down approach.<ref name=":82">{{Cite journal|last1=Leonard|first1=Sonia|last2=Parsons|first2=Meg|last3=Olawsky|first3=Knut|last4=Kofod|first4=Frances|date=2013-06-01|title=The role of culture and traditional knowledge in climate change adaptation: Insights from East Kimberley, Australia|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378013000423|journal=Global Environmental Change|language=en|volume=23|issue=3|pages=623–632|doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2013.02.012|bibcode=2013GEC....23..623L |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> Indigenous communities have stated that this limits and ignores Aboriginal Australian voices and approaches.<ref name=":122" /><ref name=":82" /> Due to [[traditional knowledge]] held by these communities and elders within those communities, [[traditional ecological knowledge]] and frameworks are necessary to combat these and a variety of different environmental issues.<ref name=":62" /><ref name=":122" />

===== Heat and drought =====

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In 2010, the Rudd government decided to delay the implementation of the [[Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme]] (CPRS) until the end of the first commitment period of the [[Kyoto Protocol]] (ending in 2012).<ref>{{cite web|date=27 April 2010|title=Interview Prime Minister of Australia|url=http://pmrudd.archive.dpmc.gov.au/node/6708|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226033533/http://pmrudd.archive.dpmc.gov.au/node/6708|archive-date=26 February 2011|access-date=12 September 2010|work=Prime Minister of Australia's website|publisher=Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet, Canberra, Australia}}</ref> They cited the lack of bipartisan support for the CPRS and slow international progress on climate action as the reasons for the decision.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.climatechange.gov.au/en/media/whats-new/cprs-delayed.aspx|title=Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme|publisher=Australian Government Department of Climate Change and Energy|date=5 May 2010|access-date=12 September 2010}}</ref> In turn, the delay was strongly criticised by the Federal Opposition<ref>{{cite news|last=Kelly|first=Joe|date=28 April 2010|title=Tony Abbott accuses Kevin Rudd of lacking 'guts' to fight for ETS|newspaper=The Australian|publisher=News Limited|url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/national-affairs/climate/tony-abbott-accuses-kevin-rudd-of-lacking-guts-to-fight-for-ets/story-e6frg6xf-1225859266626|access-date=18 October 2010}}</ref> as well as community and grassroots action groups such as [[GetUp]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Hartcher|first=Peter|date=1 May 2010|title=It's time for Labor to fret|newspaper=The Age|location=Melbourne|url=http://www.theage.com.au/opinion/politics/its-time-for-labor-to-fret-20100430-tz7s.html}}</ref>

Following the unsuccessful [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference|Copenhagen Summit]], the Rudd was replaced by Gillard as Primeprime Ministerminister, who stated that "there will be no '[[carbon tax]]' under the government I lead".<ref name="MarkButler" />

[[File:20210626 Variwide chart of greenhouse gas emissions per capita by country.svg|thumb|upright=1.5 | Among countries that emit high levels of greenhouse gas, Australia is among the highest ''per person'' emitters.]]

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In 2011, Parliament passed the ''[[Clean Energy Act 2011]]'', which introduced [[carbon pricing in Australia]], colloquially known as a 'carbon tax'. It required large businesses, defined as those emitting over 25,000 tons of<ref>{{cite web|author=Anita Talberg|author2=Kai Swoboda|date=6 June 2013|title=Emissions trading schemes around the world|url=http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/BN/2012-2013/EmissionsTradingSchemes|website=www.aph.gov.au|publisher=Parliament of Australia}}</ref> [[carbon dioxide equivalent]] annually, to purchase emissions permits. The strong backlash led by opposition leader Abbott led to her being replaced as leader by Rudd, then Abbott at the next election. Under his leadership, Australia became the first country to repeal a carbon pricing program.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ghorayshi|first=Azeen|date=July 18, 2014|title=Australia will pay dearly for repealing its carbon tax|url=http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25919-australia-will-pay-dearly-for-repealing-its-carbon-tax/|access-date=2019-06-16|website=www.newscientist.com}}</ref>

In 2015, Abbott was replaced as Primeprime Ministerminister by [[Minister for Communications (Australia)|Minister for Communications]] Malcolm Turnbull under the condition that his climate policy would not change.<ref name="MarkButler" /> Australia attended the [[2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference]] and adopted the [[Paris Agreement]]. In limiting further action on climate change, Australia joined Russia, Turkey and Brazil in citing US [[President Trump]]'s promise to withdraw from the Paris Agreement.<ref>{{cite news|date=3 December 2018|title=Climate change: 'Trump effect' threatens Paris pact|work=[[BBC]]|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46384828}}</ref>

In 2018, Turnbull was replaced by [[Scott Morrison]] as leader of the [[Liberal Party of Australia|Liberal Party]] and Primeprime Ministerminister. Morrison won the [[2019 Australian federal election|2019 election]] with an unchanged climate policy.<ref>{{CitationCite news |last1=Regan |first1=Helen |last2=Yeung |first2=Jessie needed|date=FebruaryJanuary 202310, 2020 |title=Tens of thousands protest Australian PM's climate policies amid bushfire crisis |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/10/australia/australia-fires-climate-protest-morrison-intl-hnk/index.html |work=CNN}}</ref>

In June 2021, the ''Sustainable Development Report 2021'' scored Australia last out of 193 United Nations member countries for action taken to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions, scoring 10 out of 100 in an assessment of fossil fuel emissions, emissions associated with imports and exports, and policies for pricing carbon.<ref name="Guardian_20210701">{{cite news |last1=Cox |first1=Lisa |title=Australia ranks last for climate action among UN member countries |url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/01/australia-ranks-last-for-climate-action-among-un-member-countries |work=The Guardian |date=1 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210703150358/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jul/01/australia-ranks-last-for-climate-action-among-un-member-countries |archive-date=3 July 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>

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The [[Say Yes demonstrations]] took place on 5 June 2011, in which 45,000 people demonstrated in every major city nationwide in support of [[Carbon pricing in Australia|carbon pricing policies]].<ref>(5 June 2011). [http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/06/05/3235955.htm?section=justin Thousands 'Say Yes' at carbon price rallies]. ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation.</ref> Thousands of Australian children took part in [[School Strike for Climate|school strikes for climate]] in 2018 and 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-11-30 |title='I've seen smarter cabinets at Ikea': Striking students rally for climate |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-30/australian-students-climate-change-protest-scott-morrison/10571168 |access-date=2023-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-03-14 |title='Barely out of nappies': Conservative academic takes aim at students' climate change strike |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-14/politically-correct-teaching-to-blame-for-climate-change-strike/10897682 |access-date=2023-02-23}}</ref> The [[September 2019 climate strikes]] attracted an estimated 180,000 to 300,000 participants across eight Australian capital cities and 140 urban centres, making it one of the largest protests in the country's history and one of the largest climate protests globally. Approximately 2,500 businesses also took part.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2019-09-20 |title='It's our future': Climate strike draws 'hundreds of thousands' to rallies across Australia demanding action |language=en-AU |work=ABC News |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-09-20/school-strike-for-climate-draws-thousands-to-australian-rallies/11531612 |access-date=2023-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Perper |first=Rosie |title=Over 300,000 Australians rallied as the world gears up for what could be the largest climate protest in history |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/australian-climate-protest-photos-videos-signs-melbourne-sydney-2019-9 |access-date=2023-02-24 |website=[[Business Insider]] |language=en-US}}</ref>

The response to the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season]] sparked protests in Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne, Victoria, Brisbane, Hobart, and outside the [[High Commission of Australia, London|Australian High Commission]] in London. Prime Minister [[Scott Morrison]] was criticizedcriticised for climate denial in the wake of the [[2019–20 Australian bushfire season|bushfires]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-01-10|title=Climate change protests stretch to London as Australia bushfires rage|language=en|work=Reuters|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-australia-bushfires-protests-idUKKBN1Z90TD|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110160804/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-australia-bushfires-protests-idUKKBN1Z90TD|url-status=dead|archive-date=10 January 2020|access-date=2020-01-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-10|title=Thousands protest against climate change policies amid bushfire emergency|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-10/bushfires-australia-protests-nationwide-sack-pm-scott-morrison/11857556|access-date=2020-01-12|website=ABC News|language=en-AU}}</ref> [[Extinction Rebellion]] held rallies in London, Berlin, Madrid, Copenhagen and Stockholm calling for stronger climate action.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Brennan|first1=Bridget|last2=Whalan|first2=Roscoe|date=2020-01-11|title=Morrison labelled 'laughing stock' by climate change protesters across Europe|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-11/scott-morrison-labelled-laughing-stock-europe-climate-protests/11859988|access-date=2020-01-12|website=ABC News|language=en-AU}}</ref> Direct action group [[Blockade Australia]] began disruptive activism in 2021 and 2022.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Visontay |first=Elias |date=2021-11-17 |title=Blockade Australia: anti-coal activists vow more disruption despite warnings of 25-year jail sentences |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/nov/17/blockade-australia-anti-coal-activists-vow-more-disruption-despite-warnings-of-25-year-jail-sentences |access-date=2023-02-24 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Bucci |first=Nino |date=2022-07-01 |title=A week of Blockade Australia climate protests in Sydney tests tough new laws |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=http://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jul/02/a-week-of-blockade-australia-climate-protests-in-sydney-tests-tough-new-laws |access-date=2023-02-24 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> In 2023 another Rising Tide water blockade was held in Newcastle during which 3000 people took part and 109 were arrested. Despite the intrdouctionintroduction of tougher penalties in New South Wales for such activity the majority of those facing court received dismissals with no conviction with magistrates acknowledging the protesters as “valuable contributors to society" and commending their “muscular good character.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gulliver |first=Robyn |date=2024-02-18 |title=Climate Activists in Australia are Learning How to Protect their Protest Rights |url=https://commonslibrary.org/climate-activists-in-australia-are-learning-how-to-protect-their-protest-rights/ |access-date=2024-04-01 |website=The Commons Social Change Library |language=en-AU}}</ref>

=== Litigation ===

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=== Capital cities ===

{{SeeFurther|Climate change and cities}}

====Adelaide====

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==== Victoria ====

By 2050, Victoria's annual temperature will increase up to 2.4&nbsp;°C, with twice the number of very hot days compared to1986-2005, longer fire seasons, less rainfall and snowfall in cool season and a rise in sea levels about 24 &nbsp;cm.<ref name=":6" />

== Historical aspects ==

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=== Pre-instrumental climate change ===

[[Paleoclimatology|Paleoclimatic]] records indicate that during glacial maxima Australia was extremely arid,<ref>{{citeCite web|url=httphttps://www.esd.ornl.gov/projects/qen/new_australasia.html|title=AustralasiaAUSTRALASIA|website=www.esd.ornl.gov|accessdate=4 August 2024}}</ref> with plant [[pollen]] fossils showing deserts as far as northern Tasmania and a vast area of less than 12% vegetation cover over all of [[South Australia]] and adjacent regions of other states. Forest cover was largely limited to sheltered areas of the east coast and the extreme southwest of Western Australia.

During these glacial maxima the climate was also much colder and windier than today.<ref>[[Tim Flannery|Flannery, Tim]], ''The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australian Lands and People''; p. 115 {{ISBN|0-8021-3943-4}}</ref> Minimum temperatures in winter in the centre of the continent were as much as {{convert|9|C}} lower than they are today. Hydrological evidence for dryness during glacial maxima can also be seen at major lakes in Victoria's Western District, which dried up between around 20,000 and 15,000 years ago and re-filled from around 12,000 years ago.<ref>Water Research Foundation of Australia; ''1975 symposium: the 1973-4 floods in rural and urban communities''; seminar held in August 1976 by the Victorian Branch of the Water Research Foundation of Australia.</ref>

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{{Australian climate}}

{{Oceania topic|Climate change inregions|state=expanded}}

{{global warming}}

{{Energy in Australia}}