Diadochi: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{Short description|Political rivals in the aftermath of Alexander the Great's death}}

{{Other uses|Diadochus (disambiguation){{!}}Diadochus}}

{{more citations needed|date=June 2020}}[[File:Diadochi LA.svg|400px|thumb|The Diadochi fought over and carved up [[History of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Empire|fought over and carved up Alexander's empire]] into several kingdoms after his death, a legacy which reigned on and continued the influence of ancient Greek culture abroad for over 300 more years. This map depicts the kingdoms of the Diadochi c. {{Circa|301 BC}}, after the [[Battle of Ipsus]]. The five kingdoms of the Diadochi were:

{{legend|#787CAD|[[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Kingdom]] of [[Ptolemy I Soter]]}}

{{legend|#50A249|[[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)#Hellenistic era|Kingdom]] of [[Cassander]]}}

{{legend|#C38833|[[List of rulers of Thrace and Dacia|Kingdom]] of [[Lysimachus]]}}

{{legend|#C3B933|[[Seleucid Empire|KingdomEmpire]] of [[Seleucus I Nicator]]}}

{{legend|#AF3662|[[Epirus (ancient state)|Epirus]]}}

Other

{{legend|#A361BD|[[Carthage]]}}

{{legend|#70A9BE|[[Roman Republic]]}}

{{legend|#85AB54|[[AncientGreek Greececolonisation|Greek Statescolonies]]}}]]

[[File:Seleuco I Nicatore.JPG|250px|right|thumb|Bust of [[Seleucus I Nicator]] ("Victor"; {{circa}} 358 – 281 BCEBC), the last of the original Diadochi.]]

The '''Diadochi''' ({{IPAc-en|d|aɪ|ˈ|æ|d|ə|k|aɪ}} {{respell|dy|AD|ə|ky}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref> singular: '''DiadochusDiadochos'''; from {{lang-grc-gre|Διάδοχοι|Diádochoi|Successors}}, {{translIPA|grc-x-koine|Diadochoidiˈadokʰy|link=yes}}, "successors") were the rival generals, families, and friends of [[Alexander the Great]] who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323&nbsp;BCEBC. The [[Wars of the Diadochi]] mark the beginning of the [[Hellenistic period]] from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the [[Indus River Valley]].

The most notable Diadochi include [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]], [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]], [[Cassander]], and [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]] as the last remaining at the end of the [[Wars of the Diadochi|Wars of the Successors]], ruling in [[Egypt]], [[Anatolia|Asia-Minor]], [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]] and [[IranAchaemenid Empire|Persia]] respectively, all forging dynasties lasting several centuries.<ref>[[Ptolemy I Soter#CITEREFChisholm1911|Chisholm 1911]], p. 600.</ref>

== Background ==

=== Ancient role ===

In ancient Greek, ''{{lang|grc|diadochos''}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first1=Henry George|last1=Liddell|first2=Robert|last2=Scott|title=διάδοχος|encyclopedia=A Greek-English Lexicon|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:alphabetic%20letter=*d:entry%20group=32:entry=dia/doxos&toc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic+letter%3D*d%3Aentry+group%3D31}}</ref> is a noun (substantive or adjective) formed from the verb, ''diadechesthai'', "succeed to,"<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first1=Henry George|last1=Liddell|first2=Robert|last2=Scott|title=διαδέχομαι|encyclopedia=A Greek-English Lexicon|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic+letter%3D*d%3Aentry+group%3D31%3Aentry%3Ddiade%2Fxomai}}</ref> a compound of ''dia-'' and ''dechesthai'', "receive."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first1=Henry George|last1=Liddell|first2=Robert|last2=Scott|title=δέχομαι|encyclopedia=A Greek-English Lexicon|publisher=Perseus Digital Library|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:alphabetic%20letter=*d:entry%20group=23:entry=de/xomai&toc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic+letter%3D*d%3Aentry+group%3D32}}</ref> The word-set descends straightforwardly from [[Proto-Indo-European language|Indo-European]] *dek-, "receive", the substantive forms being from the o-grade, *dok-.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|first=Hjalmar|last=Frisk|title=δέχομαι|encyclopedia=Griechisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch|language=de|volume=I|location=Heidelberg|year=1960|publisher=Carl Winter}}</ref> Some important English reflexes are dogma, "a received teaching," decent, "fit to be received," paradox, "against that which is received." The prefix ''dia-'' changes the meaning slightly to add a social expectation to the received. The ''diadochos'' expects to receive it, hencebeing a successor in command or any other office, or''expects'' ato succeedingreceive workthat gang on work being performed by relays of work gangs, or metaphorically light being the successor of sleepoffice.

==== Basileus ====

It was exactly this expectation that contributed to strife in the Alexandrine and Hellenistic Ages, beginning with Alexander. Philip had married a woman who changed her name to [[Olympias]] to honor the coincidence of Philip's victory in the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] and Alexander's birth, an act that suggests love may have been a motive as well. Macedon's chief office was the ''basileia'', or monarchy, the chief officer being the ''[[basileus]]'', now the signatory title of [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip]]. Their son and heir, Alexander, was raised with care, being educated by select prominent philosophers. Philip is said to have wept for joy when Alexander performed a feat of which no one else was capable, taming the wild horse, [[Bucephalus]], at his first attempt in front of a skeptical audience including the king. Amidst the cheering onlookers Philip swore that Macedonia was not large enough for Alexander.<ref>Plutarch, ''Alexander'', Section VI.</ref> When Philip was on campaign Alexander would lament at the report of each victory that his father would leave him nothing of note to do.

Philip fell in love with a young woman, [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra]]. He married her apparently for love when he was too old for marriage, having divorced Olympias. By that time Philip had built Macedonia into the leading military state of the Balkans. He had acquired his expertise fighting for [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]] and Greek freedom under his patron, [[Epaminondas]]. When Alexander was a teen-agerteenager, Philip was planning a military solution to the contention with the [[Persian Empire]]. In the opening campaign against [[Byzantium]] he made Alexander "regent" (''kurios'') in his absence. Alexander used every opportunity to further his father's victories, expecting that he would be a part of them. ThereAt wasthe a sourcereport of disaffection,each however.of PlutarchPhilip's reports thatvictories, Alexander andwas hissaid motherto bitterlylament reproached him forthat his numerousfather affairswould amongleave thehim womennothing of hisnote to courtdo.<ref>Plutarch,{{cn|date=April ''Alexander'', Section IX.</ref>2024}}

There was a source of disaffection, however. Plutarch reports that Alexander and his mother bitterly reproached him for his numerous affairs among the women of his court.<ref>Plutarch, ''Alexander'', Section IX.</ref> Philip then fell in love and married a young woman, [[Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon|Cleopatra]], when he was too old for marriage. (Macedonian kings traditionally had multiple wives.) Alexander was at the wedding banquet when [[Attalus (general)|Attalus]], Cleopatra's uncle, made a remark that seemed inappropriate to him. He asked the Macedonians to pray for an "heir to the kingship" (''diadochon tes basileias''). Rising to his feet Alexander shouted, using the royal "we," "Do we seem like bastards (''nothoi'') to you, evil-minded man?" and threw a cup at him.{{cn|date=April 2024}} The inebriated Philip, rising to his feet, and drawing his sword, presumably to defend his wife's uncleAttalus, promptly fell. Making a comment that the man who was preparing to cross from Europe to Asia could not cross from one couch to another, Alexander departed, to escort his mother to her native [[Epirus]] and to wait himself in [[Illyria]]. Not long after, prompted by Demaratus the Corinthian to mend the dissension in his house, Philip sent Demaratus to bring Alexander home. The expectation by virtue of which Alexander was ''diadochos'' was that as the son of Philip, he would inherit Philip's throne.

AfterIn a336 timeBC the kingPhilip was assassinated. In 336 BCE, atand the age of 20,-year-old Alexander "received the kingship" (''parelabe ten basileian'').<ref>Plutarch, ''Alexander'', Section XI.</ref> In the same year [[Darius III|Darius]] succeeded to the throne of Persia as ''[[Shah|Šâhe Šâhân]]'', "King of Kings," which the Greeks understood as "[[Great King]]." The role of the Macedonian ''basileus'' was changing fast. Alexander's army was already multinational. Alexander was acquiring dominion over state after state. His presence on the battlefield seemed to ensure immediate victory.

==== Hegemon ====

{{main|Wars of Alexander the Great}}

When Alexander the Great died on June 10, 323 BCEBC, he left behind a huge empire which comprised many essentially independent territories. Alexander's empire stretched from his homeland of [[Macedon]] itself, along with the [[Greek city-states]] that his father had subdued, to [[Bactria]] and parts of [[India]] in the east. It included parts of the present day [[Balkans]], [[Anatolia]], the [[Levant]], [[Egypt]], [[Babylonia]], and most of the former Achaemenid Empire, except for some lands the Achaemenids formerly held in [[Central Asia]].

== Successors ==

An army on campaign changes its leadership at any level frequently for replacement of casualties and distribution of talent to the current operations. The institution of the [[companion cavalry]] or "Hetaĩroi"hetairoi ({{lang-grc|ἑταῖροι}}), gave theor [[ancientcompanion Macedonian armycavalry]], aadded flexibleflexibility capability in this regard. There were no fixed ranks of Hetairoi except asto the term[[ancient meantMacedonian a special unit of cavalryarmy]]. The Hetairoihetairoi were simply a fixedspecial pool[[cavalry]] ofunit decomposed factoof [[general officer]]s, without any or with changing de jurefixed rank, whom Alexander could assign where needed. They were typically from the nobility,; many were related to Alexander. A parallel flexible structure in the [[Achaemenid army]] facilitated combined units.

Staff meetings to adjust command structure were nearly a daily event in Alexander's army. They created an ongoing expectation among the Hetairoihetairoi of receiving an important and powerful command, if only for a short term. At the moment of Alexander's death, all possibilities were suddenly suspended. The Hetairoihetairoi vanished with Alexander, to be replaced instantaneously by the Diadochi, men who knew where they had stood, but not where they would stand now. As there had been no definite ranks or positions of Hetairoihetairoi, there were no ranks of Diadochi. They expected appointments, but without Alexander they would have to make their own.

For purposes of this presentation, the Diadochi are grouped by their rank and social standing at the time of Alexander's death. These were their initial positions as Diadochi. They are not necessarily significant or determinative of what happened next.

=== Craterus ===

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[[Image:Lion hunt mosaic from Pella.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|right|[[Alexander the Great]] and [[Craterus]] in a lion hunt, mosaic from [[Pella]], Greece, late 4th century BC]]

Craterus was an infantry and naval commander under Alexander during his conquest of the [[Achaemenid Empire]]. After the revolt of his army at [[Opis]] on the [[Tigris]] in 324, Alexander ordered Craterus to command the veterans as they returned home to [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia]]. [[Antipater]], commander of Alexander's forces in Greece and regent of the Macedonian throne in Alexander's absence, would lead a force of fresh troops back to Persia to join Alexander while Craterus would become regent in his place. When Craterus arrived at [[Cilicia]] in 323 BCEBC, news reached him of Alexander's death. Though his distance from Babylon prevented him from participating in the [[Partition of Babylon|distribution of power]], Craterus hastened to Macedonia to assume the protection of Alexander's family. The news of Alexander's death caused the Greeks to rebel in the [[Lamian War]]. Craterus and Antipater defeated the rebellion in 322 BCEBC. Despite his absence, the generals gathered at Babylon confirmed Craterus as Guardian of the Royal Family. However, with the royal family in Babylon, the Regent [[Perdiccas]] assumed this responsibility until the royal household could return to Macedonia.

=== Antipater ===

{{main|Antipater}}

Antipater was an adviser to King [[Philip II of Macedon|Philip II]], Alexander's father, a role he continued under Alexander. When Alexander left Macedon to conquer Persia in 334 BCEBC, Antipater was named Regent of Macedon and General of Greece in Alexander's absence. In 323 BCEBC, [[Craterus]] was ordered by Alexander to march his veterans back to Macedon and assume Antipater's position while Antipater was to march to Persia with fresh troops. Alexander's death that year, however, prevented the order from being carried out. When Alexander's generals gathered at the [[Partition of Babylon]] to divide the empire between themselves, Antipater was confirmed as General of Greece while the roles of Regent of the Empire and Guardian of the Royal Family were given to [[Perdiccas]] and Craterus, respectively. Together, the three men formed the top ruling group of the empire.

=== Somatophylakes ===

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=== Macedonian satraps ===

{{main|Satrap}}

{{further|Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Neoptolemus (general)Polyperchon|Cassander|Seleucus I Nicator|PolyperchonNeoptolemus (general)|}}

[[Satrap]]s (Old Persian: ''xšaθrapāwn'') were the governors of the provinces in the Hellenistic empires.

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=== The ''Epigoni'' ===

{{main|Cassander|Demetrius I of Macedon|Ptolemy II Philadelphus| Antiochus I Soter| Ptolemy Ceraunos}}

Originally the [[Epigoni]] (/ɪˈpɪɡənaɪ/; from {{lang-grc|Ἐπίγονοι|link=no}} "offspring") were the sons of the Argive heroes who had fought in the first Theban war. In the 19th century the term was used to refer to the second generation of Diadochi rulers.

==Chronology==

=== Struggle for unity (323–319 BCEBC) ===

==== Partition of Babylon ====

{{main|Partition of Babylon}}

[[File:Diadochi satraps babylon.png|thumb|400px|The distribution of [[satrap]]ies in the [[Macedonian Empire]] after the [[Partition of Babylon|Settlement in Babylon (323 BCEBC)]].]]

Without a chosenclear successor, there was almost immediately a dispute among Alexander's generals asquickly began to whodispute histhe successorrule shouldof behis empire. The [[Meleagertwo (general)|Meleager]]contenders and the [[infantry]] supported the candidacy ofwere Alexander's half-brother, [[Philip III of Macedon|Arrhidaeus]], whileand [[Perdiccas]], the leading cavalry commander, supported waiting until the birth of Alexander'shis unborn child bywith [[Roxana]]. A compromise was arranged &ndash; Arrhidaeus[[Meleager (as Philip IIIgeneral) should become King,|Meleager]] and shouldthe rule[[infantry]] jointlysupported withArrhidaeus Roxana's child, assuming that it was a boy (as it was, becomingwhile [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IVPerdiccas]]). Perdiccas himself would become Regent ofand the entirecavalry Empire,supported andwaiting Meleager his lieutenant. Soon, however, Perdiccas had Meleager anduntil the otherbirth infantryof leadersRoxana's murdered, and assumed full controlchild.

A compromise was arranged, with Arrhidaeus being crowned as Philip III. If Roxana's child was a son, they would rule jointly. Perdiccas was named Regent and Meleager as his lieutenant. Eventually, Roxana did give birth to Alexander's son, [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]]. However, Perdiccas had Meleager and the other infantry leaders murdered and assumed full control.

The other cavalry generals who had supported Perdiccas were rewarded in the [[partition of Babylon]] by becoming [[satrap]]s of the various parts of the Empire. [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] received Egypt; [[Laomedon of Mytilene|Laomedon]] received [[Syria]] and [[Phoenicia]]; [[Philotas (satrap)|Philotas]] took [[Cilicia]]; [[Peithon]] took [[Medes|Media]]; [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]] received [[Phrygia]], [[Lycia]] and [[Pamphylia]]; [[Asander]] received [[Caria]]; [[Menander (general)|Menander]] received [[Lydia]]; [[Lysimachus]] received [[Thrace]]; [[Leonnatus]] received [[Hellespontine Phrygia]]; and [[Neoptolemus (general)|Neoptolemus]] had [[Armenia]]{{citation needed|reason=Neoptolemus didn't receive Armenia because Alexander the Great never captured Armenia (look at the map)|date=August 2015}}. Macedon and the rest of Greece were to be under the joint rule of [[Antipater]], who had governed them for Alexander, and [[Craterus]], Alexander's most able lieutenant, while Alexander's old secretary, [[Eumenes|Eumenes of Cardia]], was to receive [[Cappadocia]] and [[Paphlagonia]].▼

▲ThePerdiccas, othersummoned cavalrya generalscouncil whoof hadthe supportedgreat Perdiccasmen wereof rewardedAlexander's incourt theto [[partition of Babylon]] by becomingappoint [[satrap]]s offor the various parts of the Empire. in the [[partition of Babylon]]. [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] received Egypt; [[Laomedon of Mytilene|Laomedon]] received [[Syria]] and [[Phoenicia]]; [[Philotas (satrap)|Philotas]] took [[Cilicia]]; [[Peithon]] took [[Medes|Media]]; [[Antigonus I Monophthalmus|Antigonus]] received [[Phrygia]], [[Lycia]] and [[Pamphylia]]; [[Asander]] received [[Caria]]; [[Menander (general)|Menander]] received [[Lydia]]; [[Lysimachus]] received [[Thrace]]; [[Leonnatus]] received [[Hellespontine Phrygia]]; and [[Neoptolemus (general)|Neoptolemus]] had [[Armenia]]{{citation needed|reason=Neoptolemus didn't receive Armenia because Alexander the Great never captured Armenia (look at the map)|date=August 2015}}. Macedon and the rest of Greece were to be underjointly theruled joint rule ofby [[Antipater]], who had governed them for Alexander, and [[Craterus]], Alexander's most able lieutenant, while Alexander's oldformer secretary, [[Eumenes|Eumenes of Cardia]], was to receive [[Cappadocia]] and [[Paphlagonia]].

In the east, Perdiccas largely left Alexander's arrangements intact &ndash; [[Taxiles]] and [[King Porus|Porus]] governed over their kingdoms in India; Alexander's father-in-law [[Oxyartes]] governed [[Paropamisadae|Gandara]]; [[Sibyrtius]] governed [[Arachosia]] and [[Gedrosia]]; [[Stasanor]] governed [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]] and [[Drangiana]]; [[Philip (satrap)|Philip]] governed [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdia]]; [[Phrataphernes]] governed [[Parthia]] and [[Hyrcania]]; [[Peucestas]] governed [[Persis]]; [[Tlepolemus (general)|Tlepolemus]] had charge over [[Carmania (satrapy)|Carmania]]; [[Atropates]] governed northern Media; [[Archon of Pella|Archon]] got [[Babylonia]]; and [[Arcesilaus (satrap)|Arcesilaus]] governed northern [[Mesopotamia]].▼

▲InAlexander's arrangements in the east, Perdiccas largelywere left Alexander's arrangements intact &ndash;. [[Taxiles]] and [[King Porus|Porus]] governed over their kingdoms in India; Alexander's father-in-law [[Oxyartes]] governed [[Paropamisadae|Gandara]]; [[Sibyrtius]] governed [[Arachosia]] and [[Gedrosia]]; [[Stasanor]] governed [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]] and [[Drangiana]]; [[Philip (satrap)|Philip]] governed [[Bactria]] and [[Sogdia]]; [[Phrataphernes]] governed [[Parthia]] and [[Hyrcania]]; [[Peucestas]] governed [[Persis]]; [[Tlepolemus (general)|Tlepolemus]] had charge over [[Carmania (satrapy)|Carmania]]; [[Atropates]] governed northern Media; [[Archon of Pella|Archon]] got [[Babylonia]]; and [[Arcesilaus (satrap)|Arcesilaus]] governed northern [[Mesopotamia]].

==== Revolt in Greece ====

{{main|Lamian War}}

Meanwhile, the news of Alexander's death had inspired a revolt in Greece, known as the [[Lamian War]]. [[Athens]] and other cities joined together, ultimately besieging Antipater in the fortress of [[Lamia (city)|Lamia]]. Antipater was relieved by a force sent by [[Leonnatus]], who was killed in action, but the war did not come to an end until Craterus's arrival with a fleet to defeat the Athenians at the [[Battle of Crannon]] on September 5, 322 BCEBC. For a time, this brought an end to any resistance to Macedonian domination. Meanwhile, Peithon suppressed a revolt of Greek settlers in the eastern parts of the Empire, and Perdiccas and Eumenes subdued [[Cappadocia]].

==== First War of the Diadochi (322&ndash;320 BCEBC) ====

[[File:Ancient Macedonian soldiers, from the tomb of Agios Athanasios, Greece.jpg|thumb|Paintings of [[Ancient Macedonian army|ancient Macedonian soldiers]], arms, and armaments, from the tomb of [[Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki]] in Greece, 4th century BCEBC]]

Soon, however, conflict broke out. [[Perdiccas]]' marriage to Alexander's sister [[Cleopatra of Macedon|Cleopatra]] led Antipater, Craterus, Antigonus, and Ptolemy to join together in rebellion. The actual outbreak of war was initiated by Ptolemy's theft of [[Alexander the Great#Body|Alexander's body]] and its transfer to Egypt. Although Eumenes defeated the rebels in Asia Minor, in a battle at which Craterus was killed, it was all for nought, as Perdiccas himself was murdered by his own generals Peithon, [[Seleucus I Nicator|Seleucus]], and [[Antigenes (general)|Antigenes]] during an invasion of Egypt.

Ptolemy came to terms with Perdiccas's murderers, making Peithon and [[Arrhidaeus]] regents in his place, but soon these came to a new agreement with Antipater at the [[Partition of Triparadisus]]. Antipater was made regent of the Empire, and the two kings were moved to Macedon. Antigonus remained in charge of Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphylia, to which was added [[Lycaonia]]. Ptolemy retained Egypt, Lysimachus retained Thrace, while the three murderers of Perdiccas&mdash;Seleucus, Peithon, and Antigenes&mdash;were given the provinces of Babylonia, Media, and [[Elam|Susiana]] respectively. Arrhidaeus, the former Regent, received Hellespontine Phrygia. Antigonus was charged with the task of rooting out Perdiccas's former supporter, Eumenes. In effect, Antipater retained for himself control of Europe, while Antigonus, as leader of the largest army east of the [[Hellespont]], held a similar position in Asia.

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==== Death of Antipater ====

Soon after the second partition, in 319 BCEBC, Antipater died. Antipater had been one of the few remaining individuals with enough prestige to hold the empire together. After his death, war soon broke out again and the fragmentation of the empire began in earnest. Passing over his own son, [[Cassander]], Antipater had declared [[Polyperchon]] his successor as Regent. A civil war soon broke out in Macedon and Greece between Polyperchon and Cassander, with the latter supported by Antigonus and Ptolemy. Polyperchon allied himself to Eumenes in Asia, but was driven from Macedonia by Cassander, and fled to [[Epirus]] with the infant king [[Alexander IV of Macedon|Alexander IV]] and his mother [[Roxana]]. In Epirus he joined forces with [[Olympias]], Alexander's mother, and together they invaded Macedon again. They were met by an army commanded by King Philip Arrhidaeus and his wife [[Eurydice III of Macedon|Eurydice]], which immediately defected, leaving the king and Eurydice to Olympias's not so tender mercies, and they were killed (317 BCEBC). Soon after, though, the tide turned, and Cassander was victorious, capturing and killing Olympias, and attaining control of Macedon, the boy king, and his mother.

=== Wars of the Diadochi (319&ndash;275 BCEBC) ===

{{main|Wars of the Diadochi}}

[[File:Diadokhoi240nbc.jpg|thumb|[[Hellenistic kingdoms]] as they existed in 240 BC, eight decades after the [[death of Alexander the Great]]]]

The Wars of the Diadochi were a series of conflicts, fought between 322 and 275 BCEBC, over the rule of Alexander's empire after his death.

In 310 BCEBC Cassander secretly murdered Alexander IV and Roxana.

====The Battle of Ipsus (301 BCEBC)====

The [[Battle of Ipsus]] at the end of the Fourth War of the Diadochi finalized the breakup of the unified Empire of Alexander. Antigonus I Monophthalmus and his son Demetrius I of Macedon were pitted against the coalition of three other companions of Alexander: Cassander, ruler of Macedon; Lysimachus, ruler of Thrace; and Seleucus I Nicator, ruler of Babylonia and Persia. Antigonus was killed, but his son Demetrius took a large part of Macedonia and continued his father's dynasty. After the death of Cassander and Lysimachus, following one another in fairly rapid succession, the Ptolemies and Seleucids controlled the vast majority of Alexander's former empire, with a much smaller segment controlled by the Antigonid dynasty until the 1st century.

== The ''Epigoni'' ==

=== Kingdoms of the Diadochi (275&ndash;30 BCEBC) ===

{{main|Hellenistic period}}

==== Ptolemaic Egypt ====

{{main|Ptolemaic Egypt|Ptolemaic dynasty}}

Under the rule of its first three monarchs [[Ptolemy I Soter]], [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]], and [[Ptolemy III Euergetes]], Ptolemaic Egypt reached its zenith of power and prestige in its first eighty years of existence, while heading off a number of crises and challenges along the way. However, beginning with the reign of [[Ptolemy IV Philopator]] (221–203 BC), his reign is marked by historians as the beginning of the decline of Ptolemaic Egypt. However, the kingdom would persist for another 200 years.

The Ptolemaic rulers gradually embraced Egyptian traditions, such as sibling royal marriages, which the Ptolemaic dynasty frequently partook in. The cosmopolitan nature of Ptolemaic Egypt can be seen with the [[Rosetta Stone]], an edict ordered by [[Ptolemy V Epiphanes]] (204–180 BC), would be written in three languages: [[Egyptian hieroglyphs]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], and [[Greek language|Greek]]. However, the Ptolemaic rulers' insistence on the incorporation of Greek influences into Egyptian society led to many peasant revolts and uprisings throughout the course of the kingdom's existence.

====Seleucid Empire====

{{main|Seleucid Empire|Seleucid dynasty}}

====Antigonid Macedonia====

{{main|Antigonid Macedonia|Antigonid dynasty}}

=== Decline and fall ===

{{main|Hellenistic period#Rise of Rome|l1=Hellenistic period}}

This division was to last for a century, before the [[Antigonid dynasty|Antigonid Kingdom]] finally fell to [[Roman republic|Rome]], and the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] were harried from Persia by the [[Parthia]]ns and forced by the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] to relinquish control in [[Asia Minor]]. A rump Seleucid kingdom survived in [[Syria]] until finally conquered by [[Pompey]] in 64 BCEBC. The [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] lasted longer in [[Alexandria]], though as a client under Rome. Egypt was finally annexed to Rome in 30 BCEBC.

== Historical uses as a title ==

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The New Latin terminology was introduced by the historians of universal Greek history of the 19th century. Their comprehensive histories of ancient Greece typically covering from prehistory to the [[Roman Empire]] ran into many volumes. For example, [[George Grote]] in the first edition of ''History of Greece'', 1846–1856, hardly mentions the Diadochi, except to say that they were kings who came after Alexander and Hellenized Asia. In the edition of 1869 he defines them as "great officers of Alexander, who after his death carved kingdoms for themselves out of his conquests."<ref>{{harvnb|Grote|1869| p=15}}</ref>

Grote cites no references for the use of Diadochi but his criticism of [[Johann Gustav Droysen]] gives him away. Droysen, "the modern inventor of Hellenistic history,"<ref name=austinvii>{{harvnb|Austin|1994|p=vii}}</ref> not only defined "[[Hellenistic period]]" (''hellenistische ... Zeit''),<ref>{{cite book | first=Johann Gustav | last=Droysen | year=1833 | title=Geschichte Alexanders des Grossen| url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O1YPAAAAQAAJ | location=Hamburg | publisher=Friedrich Perthes | language=de | page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_O1YPAAAAQAAJ/page/n528 517]}}</ref> but in a further study of the "successors of Alexander" (''nachfolger Alexanders'') dated 1836, after Grote had begun work on his history, but ten years before publication of the first volume, divided it into two periods, "the age of the Diadochi," or "Diadochi Period" (''die Zeit der Diodochen'' or ''Diadochenzeit''), which ran from the death of Alexander to the end of the "Diadochi Wars" (''Diadochenkämpfe'', his term), about 278 BCEBC, and the "Epigoni Period" (''Epigonenzeit''), which ran to about 220 BCEBC.<ref>{{harvnb|Droysen|1836|loc=Einleitung}}</ref> He also called the Diadochi Period "the Diadochi War Period" (''Zeit der Diadochenkämpfe''). The Epigoni he defined as "Sons of the Diadochi" (''Diadochensöhne''). These were the second generation of Diadochi rulers.<ref>{{harvnb|Droysen|1836|p=670}}</ref> In an 1843 work, "History of the Epigoni" (''Geschichte der Epigonen'') he details the kingdoms of the Epigoni, 280-239 BCEBC. The only precise date is the first, the date of Alexander's death, June, 323 BCEBC. It has never been in question.

Grote uses Droysen's terminology but gives him no credit for it. Instead he attacks Droysen's concept of Alexander planting Hellenism in eastern colonies:<ref>{{harvnb|Grote|1869|pp=205–206}}</ref> "Plutarch states that Alexander founded more than seventy new cities in Asia. So large a number of them is neither verifiable nor probable, unless we either reckon up simple military posts or borrow from the list of foundations really established by his successors." He avoids Droysen's term in favor of the traditional "successor". In a long note he attacks Droysen's thesis as "altogether slender and unsatisfactory." Grote may have been right, but he ignores entirely Droysen's main thesis, that the concepts of "successors" and "sons of successors" were innovated and perpetuated by historians writing contemporaneously or nearly so with the period. Not enough evidence survives to prove it conclusively, but enough survives to win acceptance for Droysen as the founding father of Hellenistic history.

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M. M. Austin localizes what he considers to be a problem with Grote's view. To Grote's assertion in the Preface to his work that the period "is of no interest in itself," but serves only to elucidate "the preceding centuries," Austin comments "Few nowadays would subscribe to this view."<ref name=austinvii/> If Grote was hoping to minimize Droysen by not giving him credit, he was mistaken, as Droysen's gradually became the majority model. By 1898 [[Adolf Holm]] incorporated a footnote describing and evaluating Droysen's arguments.<ref>{{harvnb|Holm|1898|p=83}}</ref> He describes the Diadochi and Epigoni as "powerful individuals."<ref>{{harvnb|Holm|1898|p=67}}</ref> The title of the volume on the topic, however, is ''The Graeco-Macedonian Age...'', not Droysen's "Hellenistic".

Droysen's "Hellenistic" and "Diadochi Periods" are canonical today. A series of six (as of 2014) international symposia held at different universities 1997–2010 on the topics of the imperial Macedonians and their Diadochi have to a large degree solidified and internationalized Droysen's concepts. Each one grew out of the previous. Each published an assortment of papers read at the symposium.<ref>{{cite book | first1=Elizabeth | last1=Carney | first2=Daniel | last2=Ogden | title=Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives | location=Oxford | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2010 | chapter=Preface}}</ref> The 2010 symposium, entitled "The Time of the Diadochi (323-281 BCEBC)," held at the [[University of A Coruña]], Spain, represents the current concepts and investigations. The term Diadochi as an adjective is being extended beyond its original use, such as "[[Babylonian Chronicles|Diadochi Chronicle]]," which is nowhere identified as such, or Diadochi kingdoms, "the kingdoms that emerged," even past the Age of the Epigoni.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = Diadochi and Successor Kingdoms | encyclopedia = The Oxford Encyclopedia of Greece and Rome | year = 2010 | publisher = Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | volume=1 }}</ref>

== See also ==

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* {{cite book | last=Anson | first=Edward | year=2014 | title=Alexander's Heirs: The Age of the Successors | location=MA | publisher=Wiley-Blackwell }}

* {{cite book | last=Austin | first=M. M. | year=1994 | title=The Hellenistic world from Alexander to the Roman conquest: a selection of ancient sources in translation |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press }}

* {{cite journal | url = http://www.asor.org/pubs/jcs/52/boiy.pdf | first=Tom | last=Boiy | title=Dating Methods During the Early Hellenistic Period | journal=Journal of Cuneiform Studies | volume = 52 | year=2000 | pages=115–121 | doi=10.2307/1359689 | jstor=1359689 | s2cid=155790050 | access-date=2004-06-05 | archive-date=2011-05-15 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515075009/http://www.asor.org/pubs/jcs/52/boiy.pdf | url-status=dead }}

* {{cite book | first=Johann Gustav | last=Droysen | year=1836 |title=Geschichte der Nachfolger Alexanders |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ogicapFwGHgC |location=Hamburg |publisher=Friedrich Perthes |language = de }}

* {{cite book | first=George | last=Grote | title=A History of Greece: from the Earliest Period to the Close of the Generation Contemporary with Alexander the Great |edition=New | volume=XI |location=London, England |publisher=John Murray | year=1869 }}

* {{cite book | title=The History of Greece from Its Commencement to the Close of the Independence of the Greek Nation | volume = IV: The Graeco-Macedonian age, the period of the kings and the leagues, from the death of Alexander down to the incorporation of the last Macedonian monarchy in the Roman Empire | language = en | first=Adolf | last=Holm | translator-first=Frederick |translator-last=Clarke | location=London; New York | publisher=Macmillan | year=1898 | orig-year=1894 }}

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== External links ==

* {{cite web | url = https://www.livius.org/di-dn/diadochi/diadochi.htm | title=Alexander's successors: the Diadochi | website=Livius.org | first=Jona | last=Lendering | author-link=Jona Lendering | access-date=2020-03-26 | archive-date=2016-12-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205220824/http://www.livius.org/di-dn/diadochi/diadochi.htm | url-status=dead }}

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{{Diadochi}}

{{Alexander's Generals}}