Genocides in history: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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=== Genocides before World War I ===

[[Raphael Lemkin]] applied the concept of genocide to a wide variety of events throughout [[human history]]. He and other scholars date the first genocides to [[prehistoric times]].{{sfn|Naimark|2017|p=vii}}{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|p=31}}{{sfn|Irvin-Erickson|2023|p=11}} Genocide is mentioned in various ancient sources including the [[Hebrew Bible]], in which God commanded genocide ([[Herem (war or property)|herem]]) against some of the Israelites' enemies, especially [[Amalek]].{{sfn|Naimark|2017|pp=7–9}}{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|pp=50–51}} Genocide in the ancient world often consisted of the massacre of men and the enslavement or forced assimilation of women and children—often [[urbicide|limited to a particular town or city]] rather than applied to a larger group.{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|pp=39, 50}} Potential [[medieval]] examples are found in Europe, even though experts caution against applying a modern term like ''genocide'' to such events.{{sfn|Fraser|2010|p=277}} Overall, premodern examples that can be considered genocide were relatively uncommon.{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|p=47}} Beginning in the [[early modern period]], racial ideologies emerged as a more important factor.{{sfn|Lemos|Taylor|Kiernan|2023|p=55}}

Analysis of [[genocide]]s before [[World War I]] is the result of modern studies that apply objectivity and fact, while previous accounts of genocides mostly aimed to emphasize one's own superiority.{{cn|date=August 2024}} According to Frank Chalk, [[Helen Fein]], and Kurt Jonassohn, if a dominant group of people had little in common with a marginalized group of people, it was easy for the dominant group to define the marginalized group as a subhuman group; the marginalized group might be labeled a threat that must be eliminated.{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=3|ps=: "The difficulty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn pointed out in their early study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous and undependable. While history today is generally written with some fealty to 'objective' facts, most previous accounts aimed rather to praise the writer's patron (normally the leader) and to emphasize the superiority of one's own gods and religious beliefs."}}▼

▲Analysis of [[genocide]]s before [[World War I]] is the result of modern studies that apply objectivity and fact, while previous accounts of genocides mostly aimed to emphasize one's own superiority.{{cn|date=August 2024}} According to Frank Chalk, [[Helen Fein]], and Kurt Jonassohn, if a dominant group of people had little in common with a marginalized group of people, it was easy for the dominant group to define the marginalized group as a subhuman group; the marginalized group might be labeled a threat that must be eliminated.{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=3|ps=: "The difficulty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn pointed out in their early study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous and undependable. While history today is generally written with some fealty to 'objective' facts, most previous accounts aimed rather to praise the writer's patron (normally the leader) and to emphasize the superiority of one's own gods and religious beliefs."}}

While the concept of genocide was formulated by Lemkin in the mid-20th century, the expansion of various European colonial powers, such as the British and the Spanish Empires, and the subsequent establishment of [[colonies]] on indigenous territory frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against [[indigenous groups]] in the Americas (including [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Brazil]], [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay|Paraguay]], and the [[Native American genocide in the United States|United States]]), [[Genocide of Indigenous Australians|Australia]], Africa, and Asia.{{sfn|Jones|2010|p=139}} According to Lemkin, [[colonization]] was in itself "intrinsically genocidal", and he saw this genocide as a two-stage process, the first being the destruction of the indigenous population's way of life. In the second stage, the newcomers impose their way of life on the indigenous group.{{sfn|Moses|2004|p=27}}{{sfn|Forge|2012|p=77}} ▼

▲~~While the concept of genocide was formulated by Lemkin in the mid-20th century, the~~The expansion of various European colonial powers, such as the British and the Spanish Empires, and the subsequent establishment of [[colonies]] on indigenous territory frequently involved acts of genocidal violence against [[indigenous groups]] in the Americas (including [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Brazil|Brazil]], [[Genocide of Indigenous peoples in Paraguay|Paraguay]], and the [[Native American genocide in the United States|United States]]), [[Genocide of Indigenous Australians|Australia]], Africa, and Asia.{{sfn|Jones|2010|p=139}} According to Lemkin, [[colonization]] was in itself "intrinsically genocidal", and he saw this genocide as a two-stage process, the first being the destruction of the indigenous population's way of life. In the second stage, the newcomers impose their way of life on the indigenous group.{{sfn|Moses|2004|p=27}}{{sfn|Forge|2012|p=77}}

According to [[David Maybury-Lewis]], imperial and colonial forms of genocide are enacted in two main ways, either through the deliberate clearing of territories of their original inhabitants to make them exploitable for purposes of resource extraction or colonial settlements, or through enlisting indigenous peoples as [[forced laborers]] in [[colonialist]] or [[imperialist]] projects of resource extraction.{{sfn|Maybury-Lewis|2002|page=48}} The designation of specific events as genocidal is often controversial.{{sfn|Hitchcock|Koperski|2008|pp=577–582}}

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=== Genocides from 1946 through 1999 ===

The [[Genocide Convention]] was adopted by the [[UN General Assembly]] on 9 December 1948 and came into effect on 12 January 1951. After the necessary twenty countries became parties to the convention, it came into force as [[international law]] on 12 January 1951;{{sfn|Akande|Higgins|Sivakumaran|Webb|2018|p=64}} however, only two of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] were parties to the treaty, which caused the Convention to languish for over four decades.{{sfn|Hoffman|2010|p=260}} During the [[Cold War]] era, mass atrocities were committed by [[~~Anti-~~Mass killings under communist ~~mass killings~~regimes|~~anti-~~communist~~/capitalist~~ regimes]],~~{{sfn|Farid|2005}}~~{{sfn|Bellamy|2012|loc="The Cold War Struggle (12): ~~Capitalist~~Communist Atrocities"}} as well as by [[~~Mass killings under~~ Anti-communist ~~regimes~~mass killings|anti-communist/capitalist regimes]],{{sfn|Farid|2005}}{{sfn|Bellamy|2012|loc="The Cold War Struggle (21): ~~Communist~~Capitalist Atrocities"}} among them the [[Indonesian mass killings of 1965–66]], the [[1971 Bangladesh genocide]], the [[Cambodian genocide]], the [[Guatemalan genocide]] and the [[East Timor genocide]].{{sfn|Fein|1993}} The [[Rwandan genocide]] gave an extra impetus to [[genocide studies]] in the 1990s.{{sfn|Bloxham|Moses|2010|p=2}}

=== Genocides after 2000 ===

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The ongoing [[Amhara genocide]] started in the early 1990s with the implementation of ethnic federalism under the TPLF-led ruling, and events of the [[Tigray War|Northern Ethiopia war]] (Tigray conflict) since 2020 that intensified the violence further with war crimes committed by the Tigray forces in both the Amhara & Afar regions. On 20 November 2021, [[Gregory Stanton#Genocide Watch|Genocide Watch]] called for [[Predictions of a genocide in Ethiopia|genocide in Ethiopia]], predicted in the context of the war in Tigray and also the violence across the Oromia, and the Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel) regions that worsened [[Ethiopian civil conflict (2018–present)|since 2018]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ross |first1=Eric |last2=Hill |first2=Nat |title=Genocide Emergency: Ethiopia |website=[[Genocide Watch]] |date=20 November 2021 |url=https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/genocide-emergency-ethiopia-1 |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123151639/https://www.genocidewatch.com/single-post/genocide-emergency-ethiopia-1 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 21 November, Odinkalu called for genocide prevention, stating: "We need to focus on an urgent programme of Genocide Prevention advocacy on Ethiopia NOW. It may be too late in 2 weeks, guys."<ref name="Odinkalu 2021"/> On 26 November, African Citizens and Alton, Clark, and Lapsley also called for the predicted genocide to be prevented.<ref name="Alton, Clark & Lapsley 2021"/><ref name="Ogunsakin 2021"/>

The [[Rohingya genocide]] is an ongoing genocide of the [[Islam in Myanmar|Muslim]] [[Rohingya people]] consisting of arson, rape, ethnic cleansing, and infanticide by the [[Tatmadaw|Burmese military]]. The genocide has so far consisted of two phases so: the first was a military crackdown that occurred from October 2016 to January 2017, and the second has been occurring since August 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |date=23 January 2020 |title=World Court Rules Against Myanmar on Rohingya |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/23/world-court-rules-against-myanmar-rohingya |access-date=21 February 2023 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240422131651/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/01/23/world-court-rules-against-myanmar-rohingya |archive-date=22 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=7 December 2017 |title=Myanmar's Rohingya Crisis Enters a Dangerous New Phase |url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/292-myanmars-rohingya-crisis-enters-dangerous-new-phase |access-date=21 February 2023 |website=www.crisisgroup.org |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240910092104/https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/292-myanmars-rohingya-crisis-enters-dangerous-new-phase |archive-date=10 September 2024}}</ref>

The Chinese government has engaged in a [[Persecution of Uyghurs in China|series of human rights abuses]] against [[Uyghurs]] and other ethnic and religious minorities in [[Xinjiang]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=8 February 2021 |title=Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210208184814/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-55973215 |url-status=live}}</ref> Legislatures in several countries, including Canada,<ref>{{Cite news |first=Ryan Patrick |last=Jones |date=22 February 2021 |title=MPs vote to label China's persecution of Uighurs a genocide |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/uighur-genocide-motion-vote-1.5922711 |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |quote=A substantial majority of MPs — including most Liberals who participated — voted in favour of a Conservative motion that says China's actions in its western Xinjiang region meet the definition of genocide set out in the 1948 United Nations Genocide Convention. ... The final tally was 266 in favour and zero opposed. Two MPs formally abstained. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240815011450/https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/uighur-genocide-motion-vote-1.5922711 |archive-date=15 August 2024}}</ref> the United Kingdom,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hefffer |first=Greg |date=22 April 2021 |title=House of Commons declares Uighurs are being subjected to genocide in China |url=https://news.sky.com/story/house-of-commons-declares-uighurs-are-being-subjected-to-genocide-in-china-12283995 |work=[[Sky News]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216011746/https://news.sky.com/story/house-of-commons-declares-uighurs-are-being-subjected-to-genocide-in-china-12283995 |archive-date=16 February 2024}}</ref> and France,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/french-parliament-denounces-china-s-uyghur-genocide-01642684207?refsec=afp-news&s=09 |work=[[Barron's]] |agency=[[Agence Press-France]] |title=French Parliament Denounces China's Uyghur 'Genocide' |date =20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240205084104/https://www.barrons.com/news/french-parliament-denounces-china-s-uyghur-genocide-01642684207?refsec=afp-news&s=09 |archive-date=5 February 2024}}</ref> have passed non-binding motions describing China's actions as genocide. The United States officially denounced China's treatment of Uyghurs as a genocide.<ref>{{Cite news |title=U.S. Says China Is Committing 'Genocide' Against Uighur Muslims |last=Gordon |first=Michael R. |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |date=19 January 2021 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-declares-chinas-treatment-of-uighur-muslims-to-be-genocide-11611081555 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20210119192533/https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-declares-chinas-treatment-of-uighur-muslims-to-be-genocide-11611081555 |archive-date=19 January 2021}}</ref>

== International prosecution ==

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[[File:Srebrenica Massacre - Exhumed Grave of Victims - Potocari 2007.jpg|thumb|Exhumed mass grave of Srebrenica massacre victims in 2007]]

In July 1995, Serbian forces killed more than 8,000<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2jrsEaRIzFkC&pg=PA81|title=The United Nations |first=Kirsten Nakjavani |last=Bookmiller |year=2008 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=978-1438102993 |page=81 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0J_JZbLElKkC&pg=PA25 |title=Victory Has a Thousand Fathers: Sources of Success in Counterinsurgency |first1=Christopher |last1=Paul |first2=Colin P. |last2=Clarke |first3=Beth |last3=Grill |year=2010 |publisher=[[Rand Corporation]] |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=978-0833050786 |page=25 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mladic Arrives in The Hague |date=31 May 2011 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/01/world/europe/01serbia.html |first=Marlise |last=Simons |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240410080319/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/01/world/europe/01serbia.html |archive-date=10 April 2024}}</ref> [[Bosniaks]] (Bosnian Muslims), mainly men and boys, both in and around the town of [[Srebrenica]] during the [[Bosnian War]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.potocarimc.ba/_ba/liste/nestali_a.php|title=Srebrenica-Potočari: spomen obilježje i mezarje za žrtve genocida iz 1995 godine. Liste žrtava prema prezimenu |trans-title=Srebrenica-Potocari: Memorial and Cemetery for the victims of the genocide of 1995. Lists of victims by surname |language=bs |date=1995 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418221608/http://www.potocarimc.ba/_ba/liste/nestali_a.php |archive-date=18 April 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=ICTY: The Conflicts |publisher=[[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] |access-date=5 August 2013 |url=http://www.icty.org/sid/322}}</ref> The killing was perpetrated by units of the [[Army of Republika Srpska]] [[command responsibility|which were under the command]] of General [[Ratko Mladić]]. The Secretary-General of the United Nations described the [[mass murder]] as the worst crime on European soil since the Second World War.<ref name="UN SecGen 10th anniv">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sgsm9993.doc.htm |website=UN Press Release SG/SM/9993UN, 11/07/2005 |title=Secretary-General Kofi Annan's message to the ceremony marking the tenth anniversary of the Srebrenica massacre in Potocari-Srebrenica |publisher=[[United Nations]] |access-date=9 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109084054/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2005/sgsm9993.doc.htm |archive-date=9 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="iwpr.net">{{cite web |author=Institute for War and Peace Reporting, Tribunal Update: Briefly Noted (TU No 398, 18 March 2005) |title=Institute for War & Peace Reporting - IWPR |url=http://www.iwpr.net/?p=tri&s=f&o=235656&apc_state=henitri2005}}</ref> A paramilitary unit from [[Republic of Serbia (1990–2006)|Serbia]] known as the [[Scorpions (paramilitary)|Scorpions]], officially a part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, participated in the massacre,<ref name="Williams">{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/24/AR2005062401501_pf.html |title=Srebrenica Video Vindicates Long Pursuit by Serb Activist |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=26 May 2011 |first=Daniel |last=Williams |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230815100539/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/06/24/AR2005062401501_pf.html |archive-date=15 August 2023}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web |url=http://www.icty.org/x/cases/kordic_cerkez/tjug/en/kor-tj010226e.pdf |title=ICTY – Kordic and Cerkez Judgement – 3. After the Conflict |access-date=11 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240905181824/https://www.icty.org/x/cases/kordic_cerkez/tjug/en/kor-tj010226e.pdf |archive-date=5 September 2024}}</ref> along with several hundred Russian and [[Greek Volunteer Guard|Greek]] volunteers.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XS1vHuAgcZgC&pg=PA3 |title=Memories of Mass Repression: Narrating Life Stories in the Aftermath of Atrocity |first=Norman M. |last=Naimark |author-link=Norman Naimark |year=2011 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |access-date=4 August 2013 |isbn=978-1412812047 |page=3 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Helena |last=Smith |title=Greece faces shame of role in Serb massacre |date=5 January 2003 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/05/balkans.warcrimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240630192549/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/05/balkans.warcrimes |archive-date=30 June 2024}}</ref>

In 2001, the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] delivered its first conviction for the crime of genocide, against General [[Radislav Krstić|Krstić]] for his role in the 1995 Srebrenica massacre (on appeal he was found not guilty of genocide but was instead found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide).<ref>The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] found in [https://archive.today/20120525111049/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)] that genocide had been committed. (see paragraph 560 for the name of the group in English on whom the genocide was committed). The judgement was upheld in ''[https://archive.today/20120529184845/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2004/7.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004)]''</ref>

In February 2007, the [[International Court of Justice]] returned a judgment in the [[Bosnian Genocide Case]]. It upheld the findings of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia that genocide had been committed in and around Srebrenica but did not find that genocide had been committed on the wider territory of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] during the war. The court also ruled that [[Serbia]] was not responsible for the genocide nor was it responsible for "aiding and abetting it", although it ruled that Serbia could have done more to prevent the genocide and that Serbia failed to punish the perpetrators.<ref>{{cite news |first=Arthur |last=Max |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2007/02/26/international/i033600S38.DTL&type=politics |title=Court: Serbia failed to prevent genocide |publisher=[[The San Francisco Chronicle]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=26 February 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810091849/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fn%2Fa%2F2007%2F02%2F26%2Finternational%2Fi033600S38.DTL&type=politics |archive-date=10 August 2007 ~~|df=dmy~~}}</ref> Before this ruling, the term [[Bosnian Genocide]] had been used by some academics<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/hnpg036p.htm |title=HNPG 036P (or 033T) History: Bosnian Genocide In the Historical Perspective |publisher=[[University of California]] Riverside |date=2003 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070516181854/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/hnpg036p.htm |archive-date=16 May 2007 ~~|df=dmy~~}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2007.htm |title=Winter 2007 Honors Courses |publisher=[[University of California]] Riverside |date=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810134723/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2007.htm |archive-date=10 August 2007 ~~|df=dmy~~}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2008.htm |title=Winter 2008 Honors Courses |publisher=[[University of California]] Riverside |date=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029073204/http://www.honors.ucr.edu/Courses/winter2008.htm |archive-date=29 October 2007 ~~|df=dmy~~}}</ref> and human rights officials.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2001/12/11/milosevic-face-bosnian-genocide-charges |title=Milosevic to Face Bosnian Genocide Charges |work=[[Human Rights Watch]] |date=11 December 2001 |access-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202195854/https://www.hrw.org/news/2001/12/11/milosevic-face-bosnian-genocide-charges |archive-date=2 December 2023}}</ref>

In 2010, [[Vujadin Popović]], [[Lieutenant Colonel]] and the Chief of Security of the Drina Corps of the [[Bosnian Serb Army]], and [[Ljubiša Beara]], [[Colonel]] and Chief of Security of the same army, were convicted of genocide, extermination, murder and persecution by the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia for their role in the Srebrenica massacre and were each sentenced to life in prison.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/10/hague.srebrenica.verdict/?hpt=T1 |title=Seven convicted over 1995 Srebrenica massacre |work=[[CNN]] |date=10 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223180650/http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/europe/06/10/hague.srebrenica.verdict/?hpt=T1 |archive-date=23 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/10283403 |title=Life for Bosnian Serbs over genocide at Srebrenica |work=[[BBC News]] |date=10 June 2010 |archive-url= |https://web.archive~~-date=}}<~~.org/~~ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http~~web/20240713055735/https://www.~~timesonline~~bbc.~~co.uk/tol~~com/news/~~world/europe/article7147500.ece |title=Hague court sentences Bosnian Serbs to life for Srebrenica genocide |work=Times Online |date=10 June 2010 |location=London |first=David |last=Charter~~10283403 |archive-~~url~~date=13 ~~|archive-date=~~July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bosnia/7818653/Bosnian-Serbs-convicted-of-genocide-over-Srebrenica-massacre.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/bosnia/7818653/Bosnian-Serbs-convicted-of-genocide-over-Srebrenica-massacre.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Bosnian Serbs convicted of genocide over Srebrenica massacre |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=10 June 2010 |location=London |first=Bruno |last=Waterfield}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2016 and 2017, [[Radovan Karadžić]]<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=[[The Hindu]] |agency=[[Reuters]] |date=24 March 2016 |title=Radovan Karadzic sentenced to 40-year imprisonment for Srebrenica genocide, war crimes |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/Radovan-Karadzic-sentenced-to-40-year-imprisonment-for-Srebrenica-genocide-war-crimes/article14173135.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200611230628/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/Radovan-Karadzic-sentenced-to-40-year-imprisonment-for-Srebrenica-genocide-war-crimes/article14173135.ece |archive-date=11 June 2020}}</ref> and Ratko Mladić were sentenced for genocide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=58143#.WhadpdLiXIU |title=UN hails conviction of Mladic, the 'epitome of evil,' a momentous victory for justice |date=22 November 2017 |publisher=[[UN News Centre]] |access-date=23 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180501013118/https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/11/636942-un-hails-conviction-mladic-epitome-evil-momentous-victory-justice |archive-date=1 May 2018}}</ref>

German courts handed down convictions for genocide during the Bosnian War. [[Novislav Djajic]] was indicted for his participation in the genocide, but the Higher Regional Court failed to find that there was sufficient certainty for a criminal conviction for genocide. Nevertheless, Djajic was found guilty of 14 counts of murder and one count of attempted murder.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/135/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |title=Novislav Djajic |work=Trial Watch |date=19 June 2013 |access-date=15 February 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160214040321/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/135/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |archive-date=14 February 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> At Djajic's appeal on 23 May 1997, the [[Bavaria]]n Appeals Chamber found that acts of genocide were committed in June 1992, confined within the administrative district of [[Foča|Foca]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20120525111049/http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICTY/2001/8.html Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001)], The [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]], paragraph 589. citing Bavarian Appeals Court, ''Novislav Djajic'' case, 23 May 1997, 3 St 20/96, section VI, p. 24 of the English translation.</ref> The Higher Regional Court ({{lang|de|[[Oberlandesgericht]]}}) of Düsseldorf, in September 1997, handed down a genocide conviction against [[Nikola Jorgic]], a [[Bosnian Serb]] from the [[Doboj]] region who was the leader of a paramilitary group located in the Doboj region. He was sentenced to four terms of [[life imprisonment]] for his involvement in genocidal actions that took place in regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, other than Srebrenica.<ref name=Jorgic>Oberlandesgericht Düsseldorf, "Public Prosecutor v Jorgic", 26 September 1997 (Trial Watch) ''[http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/283/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html Nikola Jorgic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140224162507/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/283/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |date=24 February 2014 }}''</ref> On 29 November 1999, the Higher Regional Court (Oberlandesgericht) of Düsseldorf "condemned Maksim Sokolovic to 9 years in prison for aiding and abetting the crime of genocide and for grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions."<ref>Trial watch ''[http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/139/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html Maksim Sokolovic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706082940/http://www.trial-ch.org/en/ressources/trial-watch/trial-watch/profils/profile/139/action/show/controller/Profile/tab/legal-procedure.html |date=6 July 2015}}''</ref>

==== Rwanda ====

The [[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda]] (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offences committed during the [[Rwandan genocide]] during April and May 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the UN Security Council to resolve claims in Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994. For approximately 100 days from the assassination of President [[Juvénal Habyarimana]] on 6 April through mid-July, at least 800,000 people were killed according to a [[Human Rights Watch]] estimate.<ref>{{cite web |last=Des Forges |first=Alison |author-link=Alison Des Forges |date=1999 |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2020/12/rwanda-leave-none-to-tell-the-story.pdf |title='Leave None to Tell the Story' |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |access-date=6 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118065846/https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/media_2020/12/rwanda-leave-none-to-tell-the-story.pdf |archive-date=18 January 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=20 November 2014 |title=Joseph Sebarenzi Shares his Perspective on the Genocide in Rwanda in Two Lectures |url=https://humanities.byu.edu/joseph-sebarenzi-shares-his-perspective-on-the-genocide-in-rwanda-in-two-lectures/ |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=BYU Humanities |publisher=BYU College of Humanities |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810062023/https://humanities.byu.edu/joseph-sebarenzi-shares-his-perspective-on-the-genocide-in-rwanda-in-two-lectures/ |archive-date=10 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Maron |first=Jeremy |date=2022 |title=What led to the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda? |url=https://humanrights.ca/story/what-led-genocide-against-tutsi-rwanda |access-date=6 November 2022 |publisher=Canadian Museum for Human Rights |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240813065104/https://humanrights.ca/story/what-led-genocide-against-tutsi-rwanda |archive-date=13 August 2024}}</ref>

As of mid-2011, the ICTR had convicted 57 people and acquitted 8. Another ten persons were still on trial while one ([[Bernard Munyagishari]]) is awaiting trial; nine remain at large.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx |title=United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Status of Cases |publisher=ICTR |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813085127/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx |archive-date=13 August 2011}}</ref> The first trial, of [[Jean Akayesu|Jean-Paul Akayesu]], ended in 1998 with his conviction for genocide and crimes against humanity.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unictr.org/Cases/tabid/127/PID/18/default.aspx?id=4&mnid=4 |title=United Nations International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda: Status of Cases |work=[[International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda|ICRT]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202141407/http://www.unictr.org/Cases/StatusofCases/tabid/204/Default.aspx |archive-date=2 December 2012}}</ref> [[Jean Kambanda]], the interim prime minister during the genocide, pleaded guilty. This was the world's first conviction for genocide, as defined by the 1948 Convention.<ref>{{cite web |date=5 April 2021 |title=Rwanda: The First Conviction for Genocide |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/rwanda-the-first-conviction-for-genocide |access-date=6 November 2022 |website=Holocaust Encyclopedia |publisher=[[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612021642/https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/rwanda-the-first-conviction-for-genocide |archive-date=12 June 2024}}</ref>

==== Cambodia ====

{{see also|Autogenocide|Cambodian genocide|Cambodian genocide denial|Killing Fields|Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum}}

[[File:Skulls from the killing fields.jpg|thumb|Skulls at the [[Choeung Ek]] memorial in Cambodia]]

The [[Khmer Rouge]], led by [[Pol Pot]], [[Ta Mok]], and others, perpetrated the mass killing of ideologically suspect groups, ethnic minorities such as ethnic Vietnamese, Chinese or Sino-Khmers, Chams, and Thais, former civil servants, former government soldiers, Buddhist monks, secular intellectuals and professionals, and former city dwellers. Khmer Rouge cadres who were defeated in factional struggles were also liquidated in purges. Man-made famine and slave labor resulted in many hundreds of thousands of deaths.<ref name="Sliwinski1995">{{cite book |first=Marek |last=Sliwinski |title=Le génocide khmer rouge: une analyze démographique |language=fr |trans-title=The Khmer Rouge Genocide: A Demographic Analysis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B4RAunnjWRsC |year=1995 |publisher=Harmattan |isbn=978-2-7384-3525-5 |pages=82 |via=[[Google Books]]}}</ref> Craig Etcheson suggested that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a most likely figure of 2.2 million. After spending five years excavating 20,000 grave sites, he concluded that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution."<ref>{{cite web |last=Sharp |first=Bruce |title=Counting Hell: The Death Toll of the Khmer Rouge Regime in Cambodia |date=1 April 2005 |url=http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm |website=Mekong.Net |publisher=Mekong Network |access-date=13 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240622222914/https://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm |archive-date=22 June 2024}}</ref> [[Steven Rosefielde]] argued that the Khmer Rouge were not racist by claiming that they did not intend to exterminate ethnic minorities, and he also stated that the Khmer Rouge did not intend to exterminate the Cambodian people as a whole; in his view, the Khmer Rouge's brutality was the product of an extreme version of communist ideology.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |title=Red Holocaust |title-link=Red Holocaust (2009 book) |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-77757-5 |pages=119}}</ref>

On 6 June 2003, the Cambodian government and the United Nations reached an agreement to set up the [[Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia]] (ECCC), which would focus exclusively on crimes committed by the most senior Khmer Rouge officials during the period of [[Khmer Rouge rule of Cambodia]] from 1975 to 1979.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unakrt-online.org/Docs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228B.pdf |title=Resolution adopted by the General Assembly: 57/228 Khmer Rouge trials B1 |work=[[United Nations General Assembly]] |date=22 May 2003 |access-date=11 December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703061139/http://www.unakrt-online.org/Docs/GA%20Documents/A-Res-57-228B.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2007}}</ref> The judges were sworn in during early July 2006.<ref>{{cite news |first=Kevin |last=Doyle |url=http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1647257,00.html |title=Putting the Khmer Rouge on Trial |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=26 July 2007 |access-date=13 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Ian |last=MacKinnon |url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,2028421,00.html |title=Crisis talks to save Khmer Rouge trial |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=7 March 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116020356/http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0%2C%2C2028421%2C00.html |archive-date=16 November 2007 |df=dmy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/ |title=The Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force |work=Royal Cambodian Government |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050403182720/http://www.cambodia.gov.kh/krt/english/ |archive-date=3 April 2005}}</ref> The investigating judges were presented with the names of five possible suspects by the prosecution on 18 July 2007:<ref name=Buncombe>{{cite news |first=Andrew |last=Buncombe |title=Judge quits Cambodia genocide tribunal |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/judge-quits-cambodia-genocide-tribunal-2368644.html |location=London |date=11 October 2011}}</ref> [[File:KSAMPHAN3July2009-1.jpg|thumb|Khieu Samphan at a public hearing before the pre-trial [[Cambodia Tribunal]] on 3 July 2009]]

* [[Kang Kek Iew]] was formally charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity and detained by the Tribunal on 31 July 2007. He was indicted on charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity on 12 August 2008.<ref name="ap-munthit-2008-08-12">{{Cite news |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2008-08-12-1013612312_x.htm |title=Cambodian tribunal indicts Khmer Rouge jailer |first=Ker |last=Munthit |newspaper=[[USA Today]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=12 August 2008 |access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref> His appeal was rejected on 3 February 2012, and he continued serving a sentence of life imprisonment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/kaing-guek-eav-alias-duch-sentenced-life-imprisonment-supreme-court-chamber-0 |title=Kaing Guek Eav alias Duch Sentenced to Life Imprisonment by the Supreme Court Chamber |publisher=[[Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia]] |date=3 February 2012 |access-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811074110/https://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/articles/kaing-guek-eav-alias-duch-sentenced-life-imprisonment-supreme-court-chamber-0 |archive-date=11 August 2024}}</ref>

* [[Nuon Chea]], a former prime minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011.<ref name="Case-002">{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case/topic/2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517092819/http://www.eccc.gov.kh/en/case/topic/2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 May 2011 |title=Case 002 |publisher=Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia |access-date=5 February 2017}}</ref><ref name="Case-002 closing-order">{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/D427Eng.pdf |title=002/19-09-2007: Closing Order |publisher=[[Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia]] |date=15 September 2010 |access-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727154723/https://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/D427Eng.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2024}}</ref> On 16 November 2018, he was sentenced to life in prison for genocide.<ref name="UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders">{{cite news |title=UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders |publisher=[[UN News]] |date=16 November 2018 |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/11/1025981 |access-date=18 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240719092705/https://news.un.org/en/story/2018/11/1025981 |archive-date=19 July 2024}}</ref>

* [[Khieu Samphan]], a former head of state, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 19 September 2007. His trial also began on 27 June 2011.<ref name="Case-002"/><ref name="Case-002 closing-order"/> On 16 November 2018, he was sentenced to life in prison for genocide.<ref name="UN genocide adviser welcomes historic conviction of former Khmer Rouge leaders"/>

* [[Ieng Sary]], a former foreign minister, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. He was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. His trial began on 27 June 2011.<ref name="Case-002"/><ref name="Case-002 closing-order"/> He died in March 2013.

* [[Ieng Thirith]], wife of Ieng Sary and a former minister for social affairs, was indicted on charges of genocide, war crimes, crimes against humanity, and several other crimes under Cambodian law on 15 September 2010. She was transferred into the custody of the ECCC on 12 November 2007. Proceedings against her have been suspended pending a health evaluation.<ref name="Case-002 closing-order"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/E138_1_7_EN-1.PDF |title=002/19-09-2007: Decision on immediate appeal against Trial Chamber's order to release the accused Ieng Thirith |publisher=[[Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia]] |date=13 December 2011 |access-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330155822/https://eccc.gov.kh/sites/default/files/documents/courtdoc/E138_1_7_EN-1.PDF |archive-date=30 March 2024}}</ref>

Some of the international jurists and the Cambodian government disagreed over whether any other people should be tried by the Tribunal.<ref name=Buncombe/>

Line 90 ⟶ 92:

=== International Criminal Court ===

The ICC can only prosecute crimes that were committed on or after 1 July 2002.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm |title=Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: Article 11 |publisher=[[United Nations Office of Legal Affairs]] |date=17 July 1999 |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240823022000/https://legal.un.org/icc/statute/99_corr/cstatute.htm |archive-date=23 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/About+the+Court |title=ICC: About the court |publisher=[[International Criminal Court|ICC]] |access-date=6 February 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100309082156/http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/About%2Bthe%2BCourt |archive-date=9 March 2010}}</ref>

==== Darfur, Sudan ====

{{see also|Darfur genocide|Second Sudanese Civil War|War in Darfur}}

[[File:Omar al-Bashir, 12th AU Summit, 090131-N-0506A-342.jpg|thumb|Sudanese President [[Omar al-Bashir]], wanted by the ICC]]

The ~~ongoing~~ [[Racism in Sudan|racial]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/2008/11/07/op-ed/humanitarian-intervention-in-darfur-a-viable-option/ |title=Humanitarian Intervention in Darfur: A Viable Option? |date=7 November 2008 |publisher=Turkishweekly.net |access-date=9 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108232607/http://www.turkishweekly.net/2008/11/07/op-ed/humanitarian-intervention-in-darfur-a-viable-option/ |archive-date=8 January 2016 |df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/04/albashir-arrest-warrant-i_n_171703.html |work=Huffington Post |title=Al-Bashir Arrest Warrant Issued By International Criminal Court |date=4 March 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221202708/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/03/04/albashir-arrest-warrant-i_n_171703.html |archive-date=21 February 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-14094995 |work=[[BBC News]] |title=Sudan country profile |date=27 April 2010 |access-date=3 May 2010 |archive-url= |archive-date=}}</ref> conflict in [[Darfur]], [[Sudan]],<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/africa/darfur/militia.html |title= Crisis in Sudan | Janjaweed Militia | PBS |work=[[PBS NewsHour]] |publisher=[[PBS]] |date=28 January 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070128121659/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/africa/darfur/militia.html |archive-date=28 January 2007}}</ref> which started in 2003,<ref>{{Cite news |first=Makau |last=Mutua |date=14 July 2004 |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0714/p09s02-coop.html |title=Racism at root of Sudan's Darfur crisis |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216123225/https://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0714/p09s02-coop.html |archive-date=16 February 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/33606981/Darfurs-Sorrow-A-History-of-Destruction-and-Genocide |title=Darfur's Sorrow: A History of Destruction and Genocide. -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia |date=8 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208024419/https://www.britannica.com/bps/additionalcontent/18/33606981/Darfurs-Sorrow-A-History-of-Destruction-and-Genocide |archive-date=8 December 2009}}</ref> was declared a genocide by [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Colin Powell]] on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the [[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations|Senate Foreign Relations Committee]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/sudan_09-09-04.html |title=Powell Declares Killing in Darfur 'Genocide' |work=[[The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer]] |publisher=[[PBS]] |date=9 September 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040911045335/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/sudan_09-09-04.html |archive-date=11 September 2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Rebecca |last=Leung |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/witnessing-genocide-in-sudan-08-10-2004/ |work=[[CBS News]] |title=Witnessing Genocide in Sudan |date=8 October 2004 |access-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240616094055/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/witnessing-genocide-in-sudan-08-10-2004/ |archive-date=16 June 2024}}</ref> Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council has followed suit. In January 2005, an [[International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur]], authorized by [[UN Security Council Resolution 1564]] of 2004, issued a report stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide."<ref name="un-org-January-25-2005">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf |title=Report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur to the United Nations Secretary-General |publisher=[[United Nations]] |page=4 |date=25 January 2005 |access-date=5 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170712030935/https://www.un.org/News/dh/sudan/com_inq_darfur.pdf |archive-date=12 July 2017}}</ref> Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide."<ref name="un-org-January-25-2005"/>

In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the ICC, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/N0529273.darfureferral.eng.pdf |title=Security Council Resolution 1593 (2005) |publisher=[[United Nations Security Council]] |date=31 March 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050529082238/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/cases/N0529273.darfureferral.eng.pdf |archive-date=29 May 2005 |df=dmy}}</ref> Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/2005/sc8351.doc.htm |title=Security Council Refers Situation in Darfur, Sudan, to Prosecutor of International Criminal Court |website=UN Press Release SC/8351 |date=31 March 2005 |publisher=[[United Nations]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240313023658/https://press.un.org/en/2005/sc8351.doc.htm |archive-date=13 March 2024}}</ref> As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the [[UN Security Council Resolution 1593]]] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes", but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-Darfur_English.pdf |title=Fourth Report of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the Security Council pursuant to UNSC 1593 (2005) |publisher=[[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) |date=14 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614011746/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/OTP_ReportUNSC4-Darfur_English.pdf |archive-date=14 June 2007 |df=dmy}}</ref>

In April 2007, the ICC issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, [[Ahmad Harun]], and a [[Janjaweed]] militia leader, [[Ali Kushayb]], for crimes against humanity and war crimes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-ST20080605-ENG.pdf |title=Statement by Mr. Luis Moreno Ocampo, Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, to the United Nations Security Council pursuant to UNSCR 1593 (2005) |publisher=[[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) |date=5 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080813022926/http://www.icc-cpi.int/library/organs/otp/ICC-OTP-ST20080605-ENG.pdf |archive-date=13 August 2008}}</ref> On 14 July 2008, the ICC filed ten charges of [[war crimes]] against Sudan's president [[Omar al-Bashir]], three counts of genocide, five of [[crimes against humanity]], and two of murder. Prosecutors claimed that al-Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity.<ref name="Guardian-2008-jul-14">{{Cite news |~~first~~first1=Peter |~~last~~last1=Walker |first2=James |last2=Sturcke |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/14/sudan.warcrimes1?gusrc=rss&feed=worldnews |title=Darfur genocide charges for Sudanese president Omar al-Bashir |access-date=15 July 2008 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=14 July 2008 |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603185633/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/jul/14/sudan.warcrimes1?gusrc=rss&feed=worldnews |archive-date=3 June 2024}}</ref> On 4 March 2009, the ICC issued a warrant for al-Bashir's arrest for crimes against humanity and war crimes but not for genocide. This is the first warrant issued by the ICC against a sitting head of state.<ref>{{cite news |author=Staff |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7923102.stm |title=Warrant issued for Sudan's leader |work=[[BBC News]] |date=4 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603022324/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7923102.stm |archive-date=3 June 2019}}</ref>

=== International Court of Justice ===

==== Ukraine ====

Two days after the start of the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]] in 2022, on 26 February, [[Ukraine]] brought the case of [[Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022)|Allegations of Genocide under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide]] before the International Court of Justice. The case followed false Russian [[accusations of genocide in Donbas]] which genocide scholars have described as [[accusation in a mirror]] as part of a campaign of genocide incitement.<ref>{{cite web |date=27 May 2022 |title=Independent Legal Analysis of the Russian Federation's Breaches of the Genocide Convention in Ukraine and the Duty to Prevent |url=https://newlinesinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/English-Report.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616080955/https://newlinesinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/English-Report.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2022 |access-date=22 July 2022 |work=New Lines Institute for Strategy and Policy; Raoul Wallenberg Centre for Human Rights}}</ref> The court is conducting an investigation of all [[Allegations of genocide of Ukrainians in the Russian invasion of Ukraine|allegations of genocide in Ukraine]]. In November 2022, Ukraine's Prosecutor General [[Andriy Kostin]] said that during the course of five proceedings on genocide by law enforcement, investigators had recorded "more than 300 facts that belong precisely to the definition of genocide".<ref>{{Cite news |title=Ukrainian law enforcement officers record more than 300 cases of genocide – top prosecutor |url=https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-ato/3605179-ukrainian-law-enforcement-officers-record-more-than-300-cases-of-genocide-top-prosecutor.html |access-date=21 February 2023 |work=[[Ukrinform]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516214328/https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-ato/3605179-ukrainian-law-enforcement-officers-record-more-than-300-cases-of-genocide-top-prosecutor.html |archive-date=16 May 2023}}</ref>

==== Rohingya ====

On 11 November 2019, [[The Gambia]] lodged an application to the International Court of Justice against [[Myanmar]]. It alleged that Myanmar has [[Rohingya genocide|committed mass murder, rape, and destruction]] of communities against the [[Rohingya people|Rohingya]] group in [[Rakhine State|Rakhine]] state since about October 2016 and that those actions violated the [[Genocide Convention]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=1 November 2019 |title=Factbox: Myanmar on trial for Rohingya genocide – the legal cases |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-justice-factbox-idUSKBN1XV0MU |access-date=22 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221232536/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-myanmar-rohingya-justice-factbox-idUSKBN1XV0MU |archive-date=21 February 2023}}</ref>

==== Israel ====

On December 29, 2023, [[South Africa]] filed an [[South_Africa_v._Israel_(Genocide_Convention)|application instituting proceedings]] with the International Court of Justice against [[Israel]], alleging that it had violated its obligations under the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (the "Genocide Convention") during its [[2023 Israel–Hamas war|2023 offensive in the Gaza Strip]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Application instituting proceedings and request for the indication of provisional measures. Document Number 192-20231228-APP-01-00-EN |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/node/203394 |website=[[International Court of Justice]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240811151441/https://www.icj-cij.org/node/203394 |archive-date=11 August 2024}}</ref> South Africa's standing is based on the ''erga omnes partes'' nature of the Genocide Convention, which allows and obligates States Parties to the convention to take measures to prevent and punish the crime of genocide. South Africa requested indication of provisional measures by the court, including that Israel end its military operations, to "protect against further, severe and irreparable harm to the rights of the Palestinian people under the Genocide Convention", triggering an urgent preliminary hearing. Public hearings on the provisional measures question were held on January 11 (oral arguments by South Africa) and January 12 (oral arguments by Israel), respectively.<ref>{{cite web |title=Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide in the Gaza Strip (South Africa v. Israel) |url=https://www.icj-cij.org/case/192 |website=[[International Court of Justice]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240821170703/https://www.icj-cij.org/case/192 |archive-date=21 August 2024}}</ref>

== See also ==

{{Main|Index of racism-related articles|Outline of genocide studies}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=~~30em~~22em|

* [[Accusation in a mirror]]▼

* [[Anti-communist mass killings]]

* {{Section link|Anti-Mongolianism|State-sponsored genocides by the Russian Empire/Soviet Russia, Imperial China/Communist China}}

▲* [[Accusation in a mirror]]

* [[The Black Book of Communism]]

* [[Black genocide in the United States]] – the notion that [[African Americans]] have been subjected to genocide [[African-American history|throughout their history]] because of [[racism against African Americans]], an aspect of [[racism in the United States]]

* [[Crimes against humanity]]

Line 154 ⟶ 155:

* [[War crime]]

* [[Xenophobia]]

}}

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