Hannibal: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{for multi|the fictional horror character|Hannibal Lecter|other uses|Hannibal (disambiguation)}}

{{Infobox military person

| name = Hannibal

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| alma_mater =

| spouse = [[Imilce]]

| children = Possibly a son (Haspar ~~Barca~~)

| relations = {{ubl|[[Hamilcar Barca]] (father)|[[Hasdrubal (Barcid)|Hasdrubal]] (brother)|[[Mago (Barcid)|Mago]] (brother)|[[Hasdrubal the Fair]] (brother-in-law)}}

| signature =

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After the war, Hannibal successfully ran for the office of [[shophet|sufet]]. He enacted political and financial reforms to enable the payment of the war indemnity imposed by Rome. Those reforms were unpopular with members of the Carthaginian aristocracy and in Rome, and he fled into voluntary exile. During this time, he lived at the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] court, where he acted as military advisor to [[Antiochus III the Great]] in his war against Rome. Antiochus met defeat at the [[Battle of Magnesia]] and was forced to accept Rome's terms, and Hannibal fled again, making a stop in the [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Kingdom of Armenia]]. His flight ended in the court of [[Bithynia]]. He was betrayed to the Romans and committed suicide by poisoning himself.

Hannibal is considered one of the greatest military tacticians and generals of Western antiquity, alongside [[Alexander the Great]], [[Cyrus the Great]], [[Julius Caesar]], [[Scipio Africanus]], and [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]]. According to [[Plutarch]], Scipio asked Hannibal "who the greatest general was", to which Hannibal replied "either Alexander or Pyrrhus, then himself".<ref name=":1">Plutarch, ''Life of Titus Flamininus'' 21.3–4. Plutarch adds that "when asked what his choices would be if he had beaten Scipio, he replied that he would be the best of them all". However, Plutarch gives another version in his ''Life of Pyrrhus'', 8.2: "Pyrrhus, Scipio, then myself".</ref>

==Name==

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[[File:Carthage, quarter shekel, 237-209 BC, SNG BM Spain 102.jpg|alt=|thumb|A [[Carthaginian currency|quarter shekel]] of Carthage, perhaps minted in Spain. The obverse may depict Hannibal with the traits of a young [[Melqart]]. The reverse features one of his famous [[war elephants]].<ref>''Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Great Britain, Volume IX, British Museum, Part 2: Spain'', London, 2002, n° 102.</ref>]]

Hannibal was one of the sons of [[Hamilcar Barca]], a Carthaginian leader, and an unknown mother. He was born in the city of Carthage, located in what is present-day northern [[Tunisia]], one of many [[Mediterranean]] regions colonised by the [[Canaanites]] from their ~~homelands~~homeland in [[Phoenicia]], a region corresponding with the Mediterranean coasts of modern Lebanon and Syria. He had several sisters whose names are unknown, and two brothers, [[Hasdrubal Barca|Hasdrubal]] and [[Mago Barca|Mago]]. His brothers-in-law were [[Hasdrubal the Fair]] and the [[Numidians|Numidian]] king [[Naravas]]. He was still a child when his sisters married, and his brothers-in-law were close associates during his father's struggles in the [[Mercenary War]] and the Punic conquest of the [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref>Lancel, S. ''Hannibal'' p. 6.</ref>

After Carthage's defeat in the [[First Punic War]], Hamilcar set out to improve his family's and Carthage's fortunes. With that in mind and supported by [[Cádiz|Gades]], Hamilcar began the subjugation of the tribes of the Iberian Peninsula (Modern Spain and Portugal). Carthage at the time was in such a poor state that it lacked a navy able to transport his army; instead, Hamilcar had to march his forces across [[Numidia]] towards the [[Pillars of Hercules]] and then cross the [[Strait of Gibraltar]].<ref>[[Gavin de Beer|De Beer, Sir Gavin]] (1969). ''Hannibal: Challenging Rome's Supremacy'' p. 91.</ref>

According to [[Polybius]], Hannibal much later said that when he came upon his father and begged to go with him, Hamilcar agreed and demanded that heHannibal swear that ~~as long as he lived~~ he would never be a friend of Rome as long as he lived. There is even an account of him at a very young age (9 years old) begging his father to take him to an overseas war. In the story, Hannibal's father took him up and brought him to a sacrificial chamber. Hamilcar held Hannibal over the fire roaring in the chamber and made him swear that he would never be a friend of Rome. Other sources report that Hannibal told his father, "I swear so soon as age will permit...I will use fire and steel to arrest the destiny of Rome."<ref name="dodge">{{cite book|title=Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans Down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 BC|first=Theodore Ayrault |last=Dodge|publisher=Da Capo Press |year=1995}}</ref><ref>[http://www.reversespins.com/patton.html Reverse Spins] ''Patton, the Second Coming of Hannibal''.</ref> According to the tradition, Hannibal's oath took place in the town of [[Peñíscola]], today part of the [[Valencian Community]], Spain.<ref>Hilowitz, Beverley (1974). ''A Horizon guide: great historic places of Europe''. American Heritage Pub. Co., p. 119. {{ISBN|0-07-028915-8}}</ref>

Hannibal's father went about with the conquest of [[Hispania]]. When his father drowned<ref>{{cite web|title=Hamilcar Barca|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/253349/Hamilcar-Barca|access-date=6 June 2011}}</ref> in battle, Hannibal's brother-in-law [[Hasdrubal the Fair]] succeeded to his command of the army with Hannibal (then 18 years old) serving as an officer under him. Hasdrubal pursued a policy of consolidation of Carthage's Iberian interests, even signing a treaty with Rome whereby Carthage would not expand north of the [[Ebro]] so long as Rome did not expand south of it.<ref>[[Gavin de Beer|De Beer, Sir Gavin]] (1969). ''Hannibal: Challenging Rome's Supremacy'' p. 94.</ref> Hasdrubal also endeavoured to consolidate Carthaginian power through diplomatic relationships with the native tribes of Iberia and native Berbers of the North African coasts.<ref name="brainfly1">{{cite web|title=''The History of Rome: Vol III''|url=http://www.brainfly.net/html/books/brn0131c.htm}}, by Livy</ref>

Upon the assassination of Hasdrubal in 221 BC, Hannibal, now 26 years old, was proclaimed commander-in-chief by the army and confirmed in his appointment by the Carthaginian government. The Roman scholar [[Livy]] gives a depiction of the young Carthaginian: "No sooner had he arrived...the old soldiers fancied they saw Hamilcar in his youth given back to them; the same bright look; the same fire in his eye, the same trick of countenance and features. Never was one and the same spirit more skilful to meet opposition, to obey, or to command[.]"<ref name="brainfly1"/>

[[File:1868, Mugeres célebres de España y Portugal, Himilce, AB195 0021 (cropped).jpg|alt=|thumb|An 1868 illustration of [[Imilce]] and her son Haspar Barca by Juan de Dios de la Rada]]

Livy also records that Hannibal married a woman offrom [[Castulo]], a powerful Spanish city closely allied with Carthage.<ref name="brainfly1"/> The Roman [[epic poet]] [[Silius Italicus]] names her as [[Imilce]].<ref>Silius Italicus, ''Punica'', III, 97</ref> Silius suggests a Greek origin for Imilce, but [[Gilbert Charles-Picard]] argued for a Punic heritage based on an etymology from the Semitic root m-l-k ('chief, the 'king').<ref>[[Gilbert Charles-Picard|Picard, Gilbert Charles]](1967), ''Hannibal'' p. 119</ref> Silius also suggests the existence of a son,<ref>Silius Italicus, ''Punica'', III, 63–64</ref> who is otherwise not attested by Livy, Polybius, or [[Appian]]. The son may have been named Haspar or Aspar,<ref>{{Cite book |title=Antichthon |publisher=Sydney University Press |year=1967 |volume=1–6}}</ref> although this is disputed.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Selections from the less known Latin poets |last=Pinder |first=North |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1869 |page=364}}</ref>

After he assumed command, Hannibal spent two years consolidating his holdings and completing the conquest of Hispania, south of the Ebro.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dodge|first=Theodore Ayrault|author-link=Theodore Ayrault Dodge|title=Hannibal: A History of the Art of War Among the Carthaginians and Romans Down to the Battle of Pydna, 168 B.C., with a Detailed Account of the Second Punic War|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8nOkDyOwnUC&pg=PA143|year=2004|publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=978-0-306-81362-7| page =143}}</ref> In his first campaign, Hannibal attacked and stormed the [[Olcades]]' strongest centre, Alithia, which promptly led to their surrender, and brought Punic power close to the River [[Tagus]]. His following campaign in 220 BC was against the [[Vaccaei]] to the west, where he stormed the Vaccaen strongholds of Helmantice and Arbucala. On his return home, laden with many spoils, a coalition of Spanish tribes, led by the [[Carpetani]], attacked, and Hannibal won his first major battlefield success and showed off his tactical skills at the battle of the River Tagus.<ref>Hoyos, D. ''Hannibal's Dynasty: Power and Politics in the Western Mediterranean, 247–183 BC'', pp. 89–91, 2003</ref>

Rome, fearing the growing strength of Hannibal in Iberia, made an alliance with the city of [[Sagunto|Saguntum]], which lay a considerable distance south of the River Ebro, and claimed the city as its [[protectorate]]. Hannibal not only perceived this as a breach of the treaty signed with Hasdrubal, but as he was already planning an attack on Rome, this was his way to start the war. So he [[Siege_of_Saguntum|laid siege to the city]], which fell after eight months.<ref>[[Gavin de Beer|De Beer, Sir Gavin]] (1969). ''Hannibal: Challenging Rome's Supremacy'' pp. 112–113.</ref>

Hannibal sent the booty from Saguntum to Carthage, a shrewd move which gained him much support from the government; Livy records that only [[Hanno II the Great]] spoke against him.<ref name="brainfly1"/> In Rome, the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] reacted to this apparent violation of the treaty by dispatching a delegation to Carthage to demand whether Hannibal had destroyed Saguntum in accordance with orders from Carthage. The Carthaginian Senate responded with legal arguments observing the lack of ratification by either government for the treaty alleged to have been violated.<ref>[[Gavin de Beer|De Beer, Sir Gavin]] (1969). ''Hannibal: Challenging Rome's Supremacy'' p. 113.</ref> The delegation's leader, [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus]], demanded Carthage choose between war and peace, to which his audience replied that Rome could choose. Fabius chose war.<ref name="brainfly1"/>

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[[File:Hannibal's Travels during the Second Punic War.png|thumb|alt=a map of the western Mediterranean showing the route followed by the Carthaginians from Iberia to Italy|{{center|Hannibal's route from Iberia to Italy}}]]

This ~~journey~~campaign was originally planned by Hannibal's brother-in-law Hasdrubal the Fair, who became a Carthaginian general in the Iberian Peninsula in 229 BC. He maintained this post for eight years until 221 BC. Soon the Romans became aware of an alliance between Carthage and the [[Celts]] of the [[Po Valley]] in Northern Italy. When Hannibal arrived in the Po Valley, roughly 10,000 Celtic tribesmen joined his army.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Peter Berresford |title=A Brief History of the Celts |publisher=Robinson |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-84119-790-6 |edition=Revised Paperback |location=London |pages=208 |author-link=Peter Berresford Ellis}}</ref>

The Celts were amassing forces to invade farther south in Italy, presumably with Carthaginian backing. Therefore, the Romans pre-emptively invaded the Po region in 225 BC. By 220 BC, the Romans had annexed the area as [[Cisalpine Gaul]].<ref>Fagan, Garret G. "The History of Ancient Rome". Lecture 13: "The Second Punic War". Teaching Company, "Great Courses" series.</ref> Hasdrubal was assassinated around the same time (221 BC), bringing Hannibal to the fore. It seems that the Romans lulled themselves into a false sense of security, having dealt with the threat of a Gallo-Carthaginian invasion, and perhaps knowing that the original Carthaginian commander had been killed.

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Hannibal departed Cartagena, Spain (New Carthage) in late spring of 218 BC.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lancel|first=Serge|author-link=Serge Lancel|title=Hannibal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6uVh2FH-LF4C&pg=PA225|year=1999|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-21848-7|page= 225}}</ref> He fought his way through the northern tribes to the foothills of the [[Pyrenees]], subduing the tribes through clever mountain tactics and stubborn fighting. He left a detachment of 20,000 troops to garrison the newly conquered region. At the Pyrenees, he released 11,000 Iberian troops who showed reluctance to leave their homeland. Hannibal reportedly entered Gaul with 40,000 foot soldiers and 12,000 horsemen.<ref>{{cite book|last=Prevas|first=John|author-link=John Prevas|title=Hannibal Crosses the Alps: The Invasion of Italy and the Punic Wars|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zgi7RMJSCxMC&pg=PA86|year= 2009|publisher=Perseus Books Group|isbn=978-0-7867-3121-3|page=86}}</ref>

Hannibal recognized that he still needed to cross the Pyrenees, the Alps, and many large rivers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Mahaney|first=W. C.|author-link=W. C. Mahaney|title=Hannibal's Odyssey: Environmental Background to the Alpine Invasion of Italia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vU9QPgAACAAJ|year=2008|publisher=Gorgias Press|isbn=978-1-59333-951-7|page= 221}}</ref> Additionally, he would have to contend with opposition from the [[Gaul]]s, whose territory he passed through. Starting in the spring of 218 BC, he crossed the Pyrenees and ~~reached the [[Rhône]]~~, by conciliating the Gaulish chiefs along his passage before the Romans could take any measures to bar his advance, ~~arriving~~was atable to reach the [[Rhône]] inby September. Hannibal's army numbered 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 38 elephants, almost none of which would survive the harsh conditions of the Alps.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lancel|first=Serge|author-link=Serge Lancel|title=Hannibal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6uVh2FH-LF4C&pg=PA225|year=1999|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-631-21848-7|page=60}}</ref>

[[File:Heinrich Leutemann - Hannibals Übergang über die Alpen (cropped).jpg|thumb|An 1866 illustration of Hannibal and his army crossing the [[Alps]], by [[Heinrich Leutemann]]]]

Hannibal outmanoeuvred the natives who had tried to prevent his crossing, then evaded a Roman force marching from the Mediterranean coast by turning inland up the valley of the Rhône. His exact route over the Alps has been the source of scholarly dispute ever since (Polybius, the surviving ancient account closest in time to Hannibal's campaign, reports that the route was already debated). The most influential modern theories favour either a march up the valley of the [[Drôme (river)|Drôme]] and a crossing of the main range to the south of the modern highway over the [[Col de Montgenèvre]] or a march farther north up the valleys of the [[Isère (river)|Isère]] and [[Arc (Savoie)|Arc]] crossing the main range near the present [[Mont Cenis|Col de Mont Cenis]] or the [[Little St Bernard Pass]].<ref>Montgenèvre: [[Peter Connolly]], ''Hannibal and the Enemies of Rome'' (1978); ([https://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hannibal/alps.html extensive summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223092503/http://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hannibal/alps.html |date=23 February 2014 }}); [[Col de la Traversette]]: Gavin de Beer, ''Alps and Elephants'' and [[Napoleon III]]; Mahaney 2008, "Hannibal's Odyssey; Environmental Background to the Alpine Invasion of Italia"; Mont Cenis: Denis Proctor, ''Hannibal's March in History''. Other theories include the [[Col de Clapier]] (Serge Lancel, ''Hannibal'' (1995) and the Col du Petit Saint Bernard ([[Barthold Niebuhr]]).</ref>

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Recent [[numismatic]] evidence suggests that Hannibal's army passed within sight of the [[Matterhorn]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=McMenamin |first=M. | year=2012 | title=Depiction of the Alps on Punic coins from Campania, Italy | journal=Numismatics International Bulletin | volume=41 | issue=1–2 | pages=30–33 }}</ref> Stanford geoarchaeologist Patrick Hunt argues that Hannibal took the Col de Clapier mountain pass, claiming the Clapier most accurately met ancient depictions of the route: wide view of Italy, pockets of year-round snow, and a large campground.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boser|first=Ulrich|date=2007|title=Hiking with Hannibal|journal=Archaeology|volume=60|issue=1|pages=36–41|jstor=41780200}}</ref> Other scholars have doubts, proposing that Hannibal took the easier route across Petit Mount Cenis. Hunt responds to this by proposing that Hannibal's Celtic guides purposefully misguided the Carthaginian general.

Most recently, W. C. Mahaney has argued [[Col de la Traversette]] closest fits the records of ancient authors.<ref>Mahaney, W.C., Allen, C.C.R., Pentlavalli, P., Dirszowsky, O., Tricart, P., Keiser, L., Somelar, P., Kelleher, B., Murphy, B., Costa, P.J.M., and Julig, P., 2014, "Polybius's 'previous landslide': proof that Hannibal's invasion route crossed the Col de la Traversette", ''Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry'', 14(2), 1–20.</ref> Biostratigraphic archaeological data has reinforced the case for Col de la Traversette; analysis of peat bogs near watercourses on both sides of the pass's summit showed that the ground was heavily disturbed "by thousands, perhaps tens of thousands, of animals and humans" and that the soil bore traces of unique levels of ''[[Clostridia]]'' bacteria associated with the digestive tract of horses and mules.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Biostratigraphic Evidence Relating to the Age-Old Question of Hannibal's Invasion of Italy, I: History and Geological Reconstruction|first1=W. C.|last1=Mahaney|first2=C. C. R.|last2=Allen|first3=P.|last3=Pentlavalli|first4=A.|last4=Kulakova|first5=J. M.|last5=Young|first6=R. W.|last6=Dirszowsky|first7=A.|last7=West|first8=B.|last8=Kelleher|first9=S.|last9=Jordan|first10=C.|last10=Pulleyblank|first11=S.|last11=O'Reilly|first12=B. T.|last12=Murphy|first13=K.|last13=Lasberg|first14=P.|last14=Somelar|first15=M.|last15=Garneau|first16=S. A.|last16=Finkelstein|first17=M. K.|last17=Sobol|first18=V.|last18=Kalm|first19=P. J. M.|last19=Costa|first20=R. G. V.|last20=Hancock|first21=K. M.|last21=Hart|first22=P.|last22=Tricart|first23=R. W.|last23=Barendregt|first24=T. E.|last24=Bunch|first25=M. W.|last25=Milner|date=5 October 2017|journal=Archaeometry|volume=59|issue=1|pages=164–178|doi=10.1111/arcm.12231|doi-access=free |issn=0003-813X}}</ref>

Radiocarbon dating secured dates of 2168 [[Before Present|BP]] or c. 218 BC, the year of Hannibal's march. Mahaney ''et al''. have concluded that this and other evidence strongly supports the Col de la Traversette as being the "Hannibalic Route" as had been argued by [[Gavin de Beer]] in 1954. De Beer was one of only three interpreters—the others being John Lazenby and Jakob Seibert—to have visited all the Alpine high passes and presented a view on which was most plausible. Both De Beer and Siebert had selected the Col de la Traversette as the one most closely matching the ancient descriptions.<ref>de Beer, S. G., 1974, Hannibal: The struggle for power in the Mediterranean, Book Club Associates, London.</ref>

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The only alternative route to central Italy lay at the mouth of the [[Arno]]. This area was practically one huge marsh, and happened to be overflowing more than usual during this particular season. Hannibal knew that this route was full of difficulties, but it remained the surest and certainly the quickest way to central Italy. Polybius claims that Hannibal's men marched for four days and three nights "through a land that was under water", suffering terribly from fatigue and enforced want of sleep. He crossed without opposition over both the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]] (during which he lost his right eye<ref>{{cite book |author1=John Selby Watson |author2=Marcus Junianus |author3=Justinus, Cornelius |author4=Nepos, Eutropius | url = https://archive.org/details/justincornelius00watsgoog/page/n44|quote=hannibal greatest. | title = Justin, Cornelius Nepos, and Eutropius: Literally Translated, with Notes | year = 1853 | publisher = H. G. Bohn | page = 420 | access-date = 23 July 2008}}</ref> because of [[conjunctivitis]]) and the seemingly impassable Arno, but he lost a large part of his force in the marshy lowlands of the Arno.<ref>Polybius, ''Histories'', Book III, p. 74</ref> He arrived in [[Etruria]] in the spring of 217 BC and decided to lure the main Roman army under Flaminius into a pitched battle by devastating the region that Flaminius had been sent to protect. As Polybius recounts, "he [Hannibal] calculated that, if he passed the camp and made a descent into the district beyond, Flaminius (partly for fear of popular reproach and partly of personal irritation) would be unable to endure watching passively the devastation of the country but would spontaneously follow him... and give him opportunities for attack."<ref>[[B. H. Liddell Hart|Liddell Hart, B.H.]], ''Strategy'', New York, Penguin Group, 1967.</ref>

At the same time, Hannibal tried to break the allegiance of Rome's allies by proving that Flaminius was powerless to protect them. Despite this, Flaminius remained passively encamped at Arretium. Hannibal marched boldly around Flaminius' left flank, unable to draw him into battle by mere devastation, and effectively cut him off from Rome, executing the first recorded [[turning movement]] in military history. He then advanced through the uplands of [[Etruria]], provoking Flaminius into a hasty pursuit and catching him in a [[defile (geography)|defile]] on the shore of [[Lake Trasimeno|Lake Trasimenus]]. There Hannibal destroyed Flaminius' army in the waters or on the adjoining slopes, killing Flaminius as well (see [[Battle of Lake Trasimene]]). This was the most costly ambush that the Romans ever sustained until the [[Battle of Carrhae]] against the [[Parthian Empire]]. Hannibal had now disposed of the only field force that could check his advance upon Rome. He realized that without [[siege engine]]s, he could not hope to take the capital. He opted to exploit his victory by entering into central and southern Italy and encouraging a general revolt against the sovereign power.<ref>[http://www.iwar.org.uk/military/resources/hannibal/Parker_J_P_01.pdf USAWC] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031070310/http://www.iwar.org.uk/military/resources/hannibal/Parker_J_P_01.pdf |date=31 October 2015 }} ''Comparing Strategies of the 2nd Punic War'' by James Parker. ~~View as [http://www.google.com/search?q=cache:CvKkaT3rjaEJ:www.iwar.org.uk/military/resources/hannibal/Parker_J_P_01.pdf+&hl=en&gl=us&ct=clnk&cd=1 HTML]~~</ref>

The Romans appointed [[Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus]] as their dictator. Departing from Roman military traditions, Fabius adopted the [[Fabian strategy|strategy named after him]], avoiding open battle while placing several Roman armies in Hannibal's vicinity in order to watch and limit his movements. Hannibal ravaged Apulia but was unable to bring Fabius to battle, so he decided to march through [[Samnium]] to [[Campania]], one of the richest and most fertile provinces of Italy, hoping that the devastation would draw Fabius into battle. Fabius closely followed Hannibal's path of destruction, yet still refused to let himself be drawn out of the defensive. This strategy was unpopular with many Romans, who believed that it was a form of cowardice.

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Hannibal capitalized on the eagerness of the Romans and drew them into a trap by using an [[Pincer movement|envelopment tactic]]. This eliminated the Roman numerical advantage by shrinking the combat area. Hannibal drew up his least reliable infantry in the centre in a semicircle curving towards the Romans. Placing them forward of the wings allowed them room to fall back, luring the Romans after them, while the cavalry on the flanks dealt with their Roman counterparts. Hannibal's wings were composed of the Gallic and Numidian cavalry.<ref name="cottrell" /> The Roman legions forced their way through Hannibal's weak centre, but the Libyan mercenaries on the wings, swung around by the movement, menaced their flanks.

The onslaught of Hannibal's cavalry was ~~irresistible~~unstoppable. Hannibal's chief cavalry commander, [[Maharbal]], led the mobile [[Numidian cavalry]] on the right; ~~they~~which shattered the Roman cavalry opposing them. Hannibal's Iberian and Gallic heavy cavalry on the left, led by Hanno, defeated the Roman heavy cavalry, ~~and~~after ~~then~~which both the Carthaginian heavy cavalry and the Numidians attacked the legions from behind. As a result, the Roman army was ~~hemmed~~fully insurrounded with no means of escape.

[[Image:Hannibal Slodtz Louvre MR2093.jpg|thumb|upright|Hannibal counting the rings of the [[Roman Senate|Roman senators]] killed during the Battle of Cannae, statue by [[Sébastien Slodtz]], 1704, [[Louvre]]]]

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Most of the sources available to historians about Hannibal are from Romans. They considered him the greatest enemy Rome had ever faced. [[Livy]] gives us the idea that Hannibal was extremely cruel. Even [[Cicero]], when he talked of Rome and its two great enemies, spoke of the "honourable" [[Pyrrhus of Epirus|Pyrrhus]] and the "cruel" Hannibal. Yet a different picture sometimes emerges. When Hannibal's successes had brought about the death of two [[Roman consul]]s, he vainly searched for the body of [[Gaius Flaminius (consul 223 BC)|Gaius Flaminius]] on the shores of [[Lake Trasimeno|Lake Trasimene]], held ceremonial rituals in recognition of [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (General)|Lucius Aemilius Paullus]], and sent [[Marcus Claudius Marcellus|Marcellus]]' ashes back to his family in Rome. Any bias attributed to Polybius, however, is more troublesome. [[Ronald J. Mellor|Ronald Mellor]] considered the Greek scholar a loyal partisan of [[Scipio Aemilianus]],<ref>[[Ronald J. Mellor|Mellor, Ronald J.]] ''The Historians of Ancient Rome''</ref> while H. Ormerod does not view him as an "altogether unprejudiced witness" when it came to his pet peeves, the Aetolians, the Carthaginians, and the Cretans.<ref>Omerod, H. ''Piracy in the Ancient World'', p. 141</ref> Nonetheless, Polybius did recognize that the reputation for cruelty the Romans attached to Hannibal might in reality have been due to mistaking him for one of his officers, Hannibal Monomachus.<ref>[[Gavin de Beer|De Beer, Sir Gavin]] (1969). ''Hannibal: Challenging Rome's Supremacy'' p. 111.</ref>

In the [[Severan dynasty|Severan period]], Hannibal was portrayed as a successful military leader from history who could serve as an exemplary figure for a Roman audience.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Lentzsch |first=Simon |title=The Eastern Roman Empire under the Severans: Old Connections, new Beginnings? |publisher=[[Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht]] |year=2024 |isbn=978-3-647-30251-5 |editor-last=Hoffmann-Salz |editor-first=Julia |pages=226–227, 234–236 |chapter=In the footsteps of the past – the Severans and the Tomb of Hannibal |editor-last2=Heil |editor-first2=Matthäus |editor-last3=Wienholz |editor-first3=Holger}}</ref> In the 13th century, Byzantine scholar [[John Tzetzes]] wrote that "Severus (likely [[Septimius Severus]]), being of Libyan birth", constructed a "tomb of white marble" for Hannibal in Libyssa. Scholars debate whether this act was intended to promote a unified North African identity, stimulate local economic interests, or link Severus with past military heroes to strengthen his legacy, reflecting a broader Severan policy of honoring local traditions and historical figures.<ref name=":2" />

===Military history===

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* [http://attalus.org/translate/nepos23.html Life of Hannibal by Cornelius Nepos] – translated by J.C. Rolfe

* [https://www.studenthandouts.com/historical-figures/h/hannibal/hannibal-biography-workbook.htm Hannibal Biography Workbook for High School]

* [https://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hannibal/hannibal.html The Biography of Hannibal] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110091108/https://www.livius.org/ha-hd/hannibal/hannibal.html |date=10 November 2013 }}

* [https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/27551 ''Hannibal''] by [[Jacob Abbott]]