Historiography: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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[[File:Jacob de Wit - Allegorie op het schrijven van de geschiedenis 1754.jpg|thumb|The ''Allegory On the Writing of History'' shows Truth (top) watching the historian write history, while advised by [[Athena#Pallas Athena|Wisdom]]. ([[Jacob de Wit]],1754)]]

'''Historiography''' is the study of the methods used by [[historian]]s in developing [[history]] as an academic discipline, and by extension, the term ''historiography'' is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific topic covers how historians have studied that topic by using particular sources, techniques of research, and theoretical approaches to the interpretation of documentary sources. Scholars discuss historiography by ~~topic~~topic—such —as the [[historiography of the United Kingdom]], of [[historiography of World War II|WWII]], of the [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian Americas]], of early [[historiography of early Islam|Islam]], and of [[Chinese historiography|China]] ~~— and~~—and different approaches to the work and the genres of history, such as [[political history]] and [[social history]]. Beginning in the nineteenth century, the development of academic history produced a great corpus of historiographic literature. The extent to which historians are influenced by their own groups and ~~loyalties — such~~loyalties—such as to their [[Nationalist historiography|nation state]] ~~— remains~~—remains a debated question.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ferro, Marc |title=The Use and Abuse of History: Or How the Past Is Taught to Children |date=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415285926}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Candelaria, John Lee |title=Readings in Philippine History |author2=Alporha, Veronica |year=2018 |publisher=Rex Book Store, Incorporated |isbn=978-9712386657}}</ref>

In Europe, the academic discipline of historiography was established in the 5th century BC with the ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'', by [[Herodotus]], who thus established [[Greek historiography]]. In the 2nd century BC, the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] statesman [[Cato the Elder]] produced the ''[[Origines]]'', which is the first [[Roman historiography]]. In Asia, the father and son intellectuals [[Sima Tan]] and [[Sima Qian]] established [[Chinese historiography]] with the book ''[[Shiji]]'' (''Records of the Grand Historian''), in the time of the [[Han Empire]] in [[Ancient China]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], [[medieval historiography]] included the works of [[chronicle]]s in [[Medieval literature|medieval Europe]], the [[Ethiopian historiography|Ethiopian Empire]] in the [[African historiography|Horn of Africa]], [[Islamic literature|Islamic histories]] by [[Muslim historians]], and the [[Korean historiography|Korean]] and [[Japanese historiography|Japanese]] historical writings based on the existing Chinese model. During the 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment]], historiography in the Western world was shaped and developed by figures such as [[Voltaire]], [[David Hume]], and [[Edward Gibbon]], who among others set the foundations for the modern discipline. In the 19th century, historical studies became professionalized at universities and research centers along with a belief that history was like a science.<ref name="iggers">Georg G. Iggers, ''Historiography in the Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge'', 1-4. {{ISBN|978-0819567666}}</ref> In the 20th century, historians incorporated social science dimensions like politics, economy, and culture in their historiography.<ref name="iggers" />

The research interests of historians change over time, and there has been a shift away from traditional diplomatic, economic, and political history toward newer approaches, especially social and [[cultural studies]]. From 1975 to 1995 the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history increased from 31 to 41 percent, while the proportion of political historians decreased from 40 to 30 percent.<ref name="Stats">Diplomatic dropped from 5 to 3 percent, economic history dropped from 7 to 5 percent, and cultural history grew from 14 to 16 percent. Based on the number of full-time professors in U.S. history departments. [[Stephen H. Haber]], David M. Kennedy, and Stephen D. Krasner, "Brothers under the Skin: Diplomatic History and International Relations", ''International Security'', Vol. 22, No. 1 (Summer, 1997), pp. 34–43 at p. 42 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2539326 online at JSTOR] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531140355/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2539326 |date=2019-05-31 }}</ref> In 2007, of 5,723 faculty members in the departments of history at British universities, 1,644 (29 percent) identified themselves with social history and 1,425 (25 percent) identified themselves with political history.<ref>See [http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Resources/Teachers/a27.html "Teachers of History in the Universities of the UK 2007 – listed by research interest"] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060530073940/http://www.history.ac.uk/ihr/Resources/Teachers/a27.html |date= 2006-05-30 }}</ref> Since the 1980s there has been a special interest in the memories and commemoration of past events—the histories as remembered and presented for popular celebration.<ref>David Glassberg, "Public history and the study of memory." ''The Public Historian'' 18.2 (1996): 7–23 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3377910 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213101636/https://www.jstor.org/stable/3377910 |date=2020-02-13 }}.</ref>

==Terminology==

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==History==

===Antiquity===

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[[File:Marco Porcio Caton Major.jpg|thumb|upright|The Roman [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] of historian [[Cato the Elder]]]]

[[Ancient Romans|The Romans]] adopted the Greek tradition, writing at first in Greek, but eventually chronicling their history in a freshly non-Greek language. ~~While early~~Early [[Roman literature|Roman works]] were still written in Greek, such as the annals of [[Quintus Fabius Pictor]]. However, the ''[[Origines]]'', composed by the Roman statesman [[Cato the Elder]] (234–149 BC), was written in [[Latin]], in a conscious effort to counteract Greek cultural influence. It marked the beginning of [[Roman historiography|Latin historical writings]]. Hailed for its lucid style, [[Julius Caesar]]'s (103–44 BC) ''[[Commentarii de Bello Gallico|de Bello Gallico]]'' exemplifies autobiographical war coverage. The politician and orator [[Cicero]] (106–43 BC) introduced rhetorical elements in his political writings.

[[Strabo]] (63 BC – {{c.|lk=no|24}} AD) was an important exponent of the [[Greco-Roman]] tradition of combining geography with history, presenting a descriptive history of peoples and places known to his era. The Roman historian [[Sallust]] (86–35 BC) sought to analyze and document what he viewed as the decline of the [[Constitution of the Roman Republic|Republican Roman state]] and its virtues, highlighted in his respective narrative accounts of the [[Catilinarian conspiracy]] and the [[Jugurthine War]].<ref name="vann historiography 2023"/> [[Livy]] (59 BC – 17 AD) records the rise of [[Roman Empire|Rome]] from [[city-state]] to [[empire]].<ref name="vann historiography 2023"/> His speculation about what would have happened if [[Alexander the Great]] had marched against Rome represents the first known instance of [[alternate history]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy09.html |title=Livy's History of Rome: Book 9 |publisher=Mcadams.posc.mu.edu |access-date=2010-08-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228233052/http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy09.html |archive-date=2007-02-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

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====Christendom====

{{See also|~~Christendom|Hagiography|Medieval~~Historiography ~~literature~~in the Middle Ages|Medieval ecclesiastic historiography|Ethiopian historiography}}

[[File:Beda Petersburgiensis f3v.jpg|right|upright|thumb|A page of [[Bede]]'s ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]'']]

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The [[Early centers of Christianity|growth of Christianity]] and its enhanced status in the Roman Empire after [[Constantine I and Christianity|Constantine I]] (see [[State church of the Roman Empire]]) led to the development of a distinct Christian historiography, influenced by both [[Christian theology]] and the nature of the [[Christian Bible]], encompassing new areas of study and views of history. The central role of the Bible in Christianity is reflected in the preference of Christian historians for written sources, compared to the classical historians' preference for oral sources and is also reflected in the inclusion of politically unimportant people. Christian historians also focused on development of religion and society. This can be seen in the extensive inclusion of written sources in the ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' of [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] around 324 and in the subjects it covers.<ref name="sxixkf">[http://www.cuw.edu/Academics/programs/history/historiography.html ''Historiography''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018032745/http://www.cuw.edu/Academics/programs/history/historiography.html |date=2007-10-18 }}, Concordia University Wisconsin, retrieved on 2 November 2007</ref> Christian theology considered time as linear, progressing according to divine plan. As God's plan encompassed everyone, Christian histories in this period had a universal approach. For example, Christian writers often included summaries of important historical events prior to the period covered by the work.<ref>Warren, John (1998). ''The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography'', Hodder & Stoughton, {{ISBN|0-340-67934-4}}, pp. 67–68.</ref>

Writing history was popular among Christian monks and clergy in the [[Middle Ages]]. They wrote ~~[[Fan~~about ~~fiction|fan~~the ~~fictions]]~~history ~~about~~of Jesus Christ, that of the Church and that of their patrons, the dynastic history of the local rulers. In the [[early medieval|Early Middle Ages]] historical writing often took the form of [[annals]] or [[chronicle]]s recording events year by year, but this style tended to hamper the analysis of events and causes.<ref>Warren, John (1998). ''The past and its presenters: an introduction to issues in historiography'', Hodder & Stoughton, {{ISBN|0-340-67934-4}}, pp. 78–79.</ref> An example of this type of writing is the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'', which was the work of several different writers: it was started during the reign of [[Alfred the Great]] in the late 9th century, but one copy was still being updated in 1154. Some writers in the period did construct a more [[narrative]] form of history. These included [[Gregory of Tours]] and more successfully [[Bede]], who wrote both [[secular]] and [[ecclesiastical]] history and who is known for writing the ''[[Ecclesiastical History of the English People]]''.<ref name="sxixkf"/>

Outside of Europe and West Asia, Christian historiography also existed in Africa. For instance, [[Augustine of Hippo]], the [[Berbers|Berber]] theologian and bishop of [[Hippo Regius]] in [[Numidia (Roman province)|Numidia]] ([[Roman North Africa]]), wrote a multiple volume autobiography called ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]'' between 397 and 400 AD.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chadwick|first1=Henry|title=St. Augustine, Confessions| orig-year =1992|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0-19953782-2|page=xxix| year =2008}}</ref> While earlier pagan rulers of the [[Kingdom of Aksum]] produced autobiographical style [[Epigraphy|epigraphic]] texts in locations spanning [[Ethiopia]], [[Eritrea]], and [[Sudan]] and in either Greek or the native [[Ge'ez script]],<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|pages=14–15|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref> the 4th century AD [[Ezana Stone]] commemorating [[Ezana of Axum]]'s conquest of the [[Kingdom of Kush]] in [[Nubia]] also emphasized his [[conversion to Christianity]] (the first indigenous African head of state to do so).<ref>{{cite book|last=Robin|first=Christian Julien|title=The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity|chapter=Arabia and Ethiopia|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-19-533693-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KEYSDAAAQBAJ|editor-last=Johnson|editor-first=Scott Fitzgerald|page=276|translator=Arietta Papaconstantinou}}</ref> Aksumite manuscripts from the 5th to 7th centuries AD chronicling the [[diocese]]s and [[episcopal sees]] of the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] demonstrate not only an adherence to Christian chronology but also influences from the non-Christian Kingdom of Kush, the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] of [[Hellenistic Egypt]], and the [[Yemenite Jews]] of the [[Himyarite Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|pages=15–16|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref> The tradition of [[Ethiopian historiography]] evolved into a matured form during the [[Solomonic dynasty]]. Though works such as the 13th century ''[[Kebra Nagast]]'' blended [[Christian mythology]] with historical events in its narrative, the first proper biographical chronicle on an [[Emperor of Ethiopia]] was made for [[Amda Seyon I]] (r. 1314–1344), depicted as a Christian savior of his nation in conflicts with the Islamic [[Ifat Sultanate]].<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|pages=17–18|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref> The 16th century monk [[Bahrey]] was the first in Ethiopia to produce a historical [[ethnography]], focusing on the migrating [[Oromo people]] who came into military conflict with the Ethiopian Empire.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|page=20|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref> While royal biographies existed for individual Ethiopian emperors authored by court historians who were also clerical scholars within the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Church]], the reigns of [[Iyasu II]] (r. 1730–1755) and [[Iyoas I]] (r. 1755–1769) were the first to be included in larger general dynastic histories.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Lorenzi|first=James|title=Guardians of the Tradition: Historians and Historical Writing in Ethiopia and Eritrea|location=Rochester|publisher=[[University of Rochester Press]]|year=2015|pages=20–22|isbn=978-1-58046-519-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1WECgAAQBAJ}}</ref>

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Voltaire's best-known histories are ''[[The Age of Louis XIV]]'' (1751), and his ''[[Essai sur les mœurs et l'esprit des nations|Essay on the Customs and the Spirit of the Nations]]'' (1756). He broke from the tradition of narrating diplomatic and military events, and emphasized customs, social history and achievements in the arts and sciences. He was the first scholar to make a serious attempt to write the history of the world, eliminating theological frameworks, and emphasizing economics, culture and political history. Although he repeatedly warned against political bias on the part of the historian, he did not miss many opportunities to expose the intolerance and frauds of the church over the ages. Voltaire advised scholars that anything contradicting the normal course of nature was not to be believed. Although he found evil in the historical record, he fervently believed reason and educating the illiterate masses would lead to progress. Voltaire's ''[[History of Charles XII]]'' (1731) about the Swedish warrior king ([[Swedish language|Swedish]]: Karl XII) is also one of his most famous works. It is not least known as one of [[Napoleon|Napoleon's]] absolute favorite books.<ref>[https://www.napoleon-series.org/research/napoleon/c_read2.html] Grossman, Ira. 1995-2023. "Napoleon the Reader: The Imperial Years", In: ''The Napoleon Series''.</ref>

Voltaire explains his view of historiography in his article on "History" in Diderot's ''[[Encyclopédie]]'': "One demands of modern historians more details, better ascertained facts, precise dates, more attention to customs, laws, mores, commerce, finance, agriculture, population." Already in 1739 he had written: "My chief object is not political or military history, it is the history of the arts, of commerce, of civilization—in a word—of the human mind."<ref name="Sreedharan2004">{{cite book|author=E. Sreedharan|title=A Textbook of Historiography: 500 BC to AD 2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJVoi3PIejwC&pg=PA115|year=2004|publisher=Orient Blackswan|page=115|isbn=978-8125026570}}</ref> Voltaire's histories used the values of the Enlightenment to evaluate the past. He helped free historiography from antiquarianism, [[Eurocentrism]], religious intolerance and a concentration on great men, diplomacy, and warfare.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sakmann |first1=Paul |year=1971 |title=The Problems of Historical Method and of Philosophy of History in Voltaire |journal=History and Theory |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=24–59 |doi=10.2307/2504245 |jstor=2504245 }}</ref> [[Peter Gay]] says Voltaire wrote "very good history", citing his "scrupulous concern for truths", "careful sifting of evidence", "intelligent selection of what is important", "keen sense of drama", and "grasp of the fact that a whole civilization is a unit of study".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gay |first1=Peter |year=1957 |title=Carl Becker's Heavenly City |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=182–199 |doi=10.2307/2145772 |jstor=2145772 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gay |first=Peter |title=Voltaire's Politics |year=1988 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0300040951 |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2021}}

====David Hume====

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====Thomas Carlyle====

[[Thomas Carlyle]] published his three-volume ''[[The French Revolution: A History]]'', in 1837. The first volume was accidentally burned by [[John Stuart Mill]]'s maid. Carlyle rewrote it from scratch.<ref>[[John D. Rosenberg]], ''Carlyle and the Burden of History'' (1985). {{ISBN|978-0674422988}}</ref> Carlyle's style of historical writing stressed the immediacy of action, often using the present tense. He emphasised the role of forces of the spirit in history and thought that chaotic events demanded what he called 'heroes' to take control over the competing forces erupting within society. He considered the dynamic forces of history as being the hopes and aspirations of people that took the form of ideas, and were often ossified into ideologies. Carlyle's ''The French Revolution'' was written in a highly unorthodox style, far removed from the neutral and detached tone of the tradition of Gibbon. Carlyle presented the history as dramatic events unfolding in the present as though he and the reader were participants on the streets of Paris at the famous events. Carlyle's invented style was epic poetry combined with philosophical treatise. It is rarely read or cited in the last century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cobban |first1=Alfred |year=1963 |title=Carlyle's French Revolution |journal=History |volume=48 |issue=164 |pages=306–316 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-229x.1963.tb02321.x }}</ref><ref>Mark Cumming, ''A Disimprisoned Epic: Form and Vision in Carlyle's French Revolution'' (1988). {{JSTOR|j.ctv4v332n}}. {{~~Webarchive~~Cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv4v332n |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424204529/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv4v332n |~~date=2023~~url-~~04-24~~status=bot: unknown }}.</ref>

====French historians: Michelet and Taine====

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His legacy continues to be controversial; [[Gertrude Himmelfarb]] wrote that "most professional historians have long since given up reading Macaulay, as they have given up writing the kind of history he wrote and thinking about history as he did."<ref>Gertrude Himmelfarb, "Who Now Reads Macaulay?", ''Marriage and Morals Among The Victorians. And other Essays'' (London: [[Faber and Faber]], 1986), p. 163.</ref> However, J. R. Western wrote that: "Despite its age and blemishes, Macaulay's ''History of England'' has still to be superseded by a full-scale modern history of the period".<ref>J. R. Western, ''Monarchy and Revolution. The English State in the 1680s'' (London: Blandford Press, 1972), p. 403. {{ISBN|978-0713732801}}</ref>

The Whig consensus was steadily undermined during the post-[[World War I]] re-evaluation of European history, and Butterfield's critique exemplified this trend. Intellectuals no longer believed the world was automatically getting better and better. Subsequent generations of academic historians have similarly rejected Whig history because of its [[Presentism (historical analysis)|presentist]] and teleological assumption that history is driving toward some sort of goal.<ref>Victor Feske, ''From Belloc to Churchill: Private Scholars, Public Culture, and the Crisis of British Liberalism, 1900–1939'' (1996), p. 2. {{JSTOR|10.5149/9780807861387_feske}}. {{~~Webarchive~~Cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861387_feske |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424204528/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5149/9780807861387_feske |~~date=2023~~url-~~04-24~~status=bot: unknown }}.</ref> Other criticized 'Whig' assumptions included viewing the British system as the apex of human political development, assuming that political figures in the past held current political beliefs ([[anachronism]]), considering British history as a march of progress with inevitable outcomes and presenting political figures of the past as heroes, who advanced the cause of this political progress, or villains, who sought to hinder its inevitable triumph. J. Hart says "a Whig interpretation requires human heroes and villains in the story."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=J. |year=1965 |title=Nineteenth-Century Social Reform: A Tory Interpretation of History |journal=Past & Present |issue=31 |pages=39–61 |doi=10.1093/past/31.1.39 }}</ref>

===20th century===

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The French [[Annales school|''Annales'' school]] radically changed the focus of historical research in France during the 20th century by stressing long-term social history, rather than political or diplomatic themes. The school emphasized the use of quantification and the paying of special attention to geography.<ref>See Lucien Febvre, ''La Terre et l'évolution humaine'' (1922), translated as ''A Geographical Introduction to History'' (London, 1932).</ref><ref>See [http://www.editions.ehess.fr/revues/annales-histoire-sciences-sociales/numeros-parus/ for recent issues] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928120516/http://www.editions.ehess.fr/revues/annales-histoire-sciences-sociales/numeros-parus/ |date=2008-09-28 }}</ref>

The ''Annales d'histoire économique et sociale'' journal was founded in 1929 in [[Strasbourg]] by [[Marc Bloch]] and [[Lucien Febvre]]. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive ''Annales'' approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the [[Année Sociologique]] (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures (''la [[longue durée]]'') over events and political transformations.<ref>Colin Jones, "[http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/past_and_present/v2006/2006.1Sjones.html Olwen Hufton's 'Poor', Richard Cobb's 'People', and the Notions of the longue durée in French Revolutionary Historiography]", ''Past & Present'', 2006 Supplement (Volume 1), pp. 178–203, in Project Muse.</ref> Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called ''mentalités'', or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the ''Annales'' was to undo the work of the ''Sorbonnistes'', to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history.<ref>J.H. Hexter, "Fernand Braudel and the Monde Braudellien", '' Historians'', pp. 61 {{JSTOR|1876806}}. {{~~Webarchive~~Cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1876806 |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 April 2023 |archive-date=24 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230424204530/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1876806 |~~date=2023~~url-~~04-24~~status=bot: unknown }}.</ref> For early modern Mexican history, the work of [[Marc Bloch]]'s student [[Francois Chevalier (historian)|François Chevalier]] on the formation of landed estates ([[haciendas]]) from the sixteenth century to the seventeenth had a major impact on Mexican history and historiography,<ref>François Chevalier, ''La formation des grands domains au Mexique (terre et sociéte aux SVIe et XVIIe siècles)'' Paris, Institut de ethnologie 1952.</ref> setting off an important debate about whether landed estates were basically feudal or capitalistic.<ref>[[Eric Van Young]], "Rural History" in ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History'', José C. Moya, ed. New York: Oxford University Press 2011, p. 312. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195166217.001.0001</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van Young |first1=Eric |year=1983 |title=Mexican Rural History Since Chevalier: The Historiography of the Colonial Hacienda |journal=Latin American Research Review |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=5–62 |doi=10.1017/S0023879100021026 |s2cid=253142396 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

An eminent member of this school, [[Georges Duby]], described his approach to history as one that <blockquote>relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strived on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society and civilisation.</blockquote> The Annalistes, especially [[Lucien Febvre]], advocated a ''histoire totale'', or ''histoire tout court'', a complete study of a historical problem.

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For the early modern period, the emergence of [[Atlantic history]], based on comparisons and linkages of Europe, the Americas, and Africa from 1450 to 1850 that developed as a field in its own right has integrated early modern Latin American history into a larger framework.<ref>see Bernard Bailyn, ''Atlantic History: Concept and Contours.'' Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press 2005. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvjz8180 The development of the field antedates this publication.</ref> For all periods, global or world history have focused on the connections between areas, likewise integrating Latin America into a larger perspective. Latin America's importance to world history is notable but often overlooked. "Latin America's central, and sometimes pioneering, role in the development of globalization and modernity did not cease with the end of colonial rule and the early modern period. Indeed, the region's political independence places it at the forefront of two trends that are regularly considered thresholds of the modern world. The first is the so-called liberal revolution, the shift from monarchies of the ancien régime, where inheritance legitimated political power, to constitutional republics... The second, and related, trend consistently considered a threshold of modern history that saw Latin America in the forefront is the development of nation-states."<ref>Moya, "Introduction: Reclaiming Identity", p. 9.</ref>

Historical research appears in a number of specialized journals. These include ''[[Hispanic American Historical Review]]'' (est. 1918), published by the [[Conference on Latin American History]]; ''The Americas'', (est. 1944); ''[[Journal of Latin American Studies]]'' (1969); ''Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies'', (est.1976)<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.can-latam.org/journal |title=The Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies |date=2018-03-06 |access-date=2016-10-08 |archive-date=2016-10-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017075134/https://www.can-latam.org/journal |url-status=dead}}</ref> ''[[Bulletin of Latin American Research]]'', (est. 1981); ''Colonial Latin American Review'' (1992); and ''Colonial Latin American Historical Review'' (est. 1992). ''[[Latin American Research Review]]'' (est. 1969), published by the [[Latin American Studies Association]], does not focus primarily on history, but it has often published historiographical essays on particular topics.

'''General works''' on Latin American history have appeared since the 1950s, when the teaching of Latin American history expanded in U.S. universities and colleges.<ref>Howard F. Cline, ed. ''Latin American History: Essays on its Teaching and Research, 1898–1965''. 2 vols. Austin: University of Texas Press 1967.</ref> Most attempt full coverage of Spanish America and Brazil from the conquest to the modern era, focusing on institutional, political, social and economic history. An important, eleven volume treatment of Latin American history is ''The Cambridge History of Latin America'', with separate volumes on the colonial era, nineteenth century, and the twentieth century.<ref>Leslie Bethell, editor. ''The Cambridge History of Latin America'' 11 volumes. New York: Cambridge University Press 1984.</ref> There is a small number of general works that have gone through multiple editions.<ref>Benjamin Keen and Keith Haynes, ''A History of Latin America'' 9th edition. Cengage 2012. {{ISBN|978-0618783182}}</ref><ref>John Charles Chasteen, ''Born in Blood and Fire: A Concise History of Latin America'' 4th edition. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 2016. {{ISBN|978-0393283051}}</ref><ref>Thomas E. Skidmore and Peter H. Smith, ''Modern Latin America'' 9th edition. New York: Oxford University Press 2013. {{ISBN|978-0190674670}}</ref> Major trade publishers have also issued edited volumes on Latin American history<ref>Thomas H. Holloway, ''A Companion to Latin American History''. Malden MA: Wiley-Blackwell 2011. {{ISBN|978-1444338843}}</ref> and historiography.<ref>José C. Moya, ''The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History''. New York: Oxford University Press 2011. {{ISBN|978-0195166217}}</ref> Reference works include the ''[[Handbook of Latin American Studies]]'', which publishes articles by area experts, with annotated bibliographic entries, and the ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture''.<ref>Barbara A. Tenenbaum, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Latin American History'' 5 vols. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996. {{ISBN|978-0684192536}}</ref>

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==Narrative==

According to [[Lawrence Stone]], [[narrative]] has traditionally been the main [[rhetorical device]] used by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new [[Social History]] was demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected a move back toward the narrative. Stone defined narrative as follows: it is organized [[chronological]]ly; it is focused on a single coherent story; it is descriptive rather than analytical; it is concerned with people not abstract circumstances; and it deals with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He reported that, "More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which inevitably lead back to the use of narrative."<ref>Lawrence Stone, "The Revival of Narrative: Reflections on a New Old History", ''Past and Present'' 85 (Nov 1979) pp. 3–24, quote on p. 13 {{JSTOR|650677}}. {{~~Webarchive~~Cite web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/650677 |title=Archived copy |access-date=25 April 2023 |archive-date=26 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230426032044/https://www.jstor.org/stable/650677 |~~date=2023~~url-~~04-26~~status=bot: unknown }}.</ref>

Historians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis, and its use of clever examples rather than statistically verified empirical regularities.<ref>J. Morgan Kousser, "The Revivalism of Narrative: A Response to Recent Criticisms of Quantitative History", ''Social Science History'' vol. 8, no. 2 (Spring 1984): 133–149; Eric H. Monkkonen, "The Dangers of Synthesis", ''American Historical Review'' 91, no. 5 (December 1986): 1146–1157. {{doi|10.2307/1170990}}.</ref>

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* [[Ethnohistory]]

* [[Gender history]] including [[women's history]], [[family history]], [[feminist history]]

* [[World history (field)|Global history]], or [[World history (field)|World History]]

* [[Global studies]]

* [[Great man theory]] and [[Heroism]]

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* Boyd, Kelly, ed. ''Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writers'' (2 Vol 1999), 1600 pp covering major historians and themes

* Cline, Howard F. ed. ''Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources, Handbook of Middle American Indians'' (4 vols U of Texas Press 1973.

* Gray, Wood. ''Historian's Handbook'', 2nd ed. (Houghton-~~Miffin~~Mifflin Co., cop. 1964), vii, 88 pp; a primer

* Elton, G.R. ''Modern Historians on British History 1485–1945: A Critical Bibliography 1945–1969'' (1969), annotated guide to 1000 history books on every major topic, plus book reviews and major scholarly articles. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.176158 online]

* Loades, David, ed. ''Reader's Guide to British History'' (Routledge; 2 vol 2003) 1760 pp; highly detailed guide to British historiography [https://books.google.com/books?id=AYEYAQAAIAAJ excerpt and text search]

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* Evans, Ronald W. ''The Hope for American School Reform: The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in Social Studies''(Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 265 pages

* [[Marc Ferro|Ferro, Marc]], ''Cinema and History'' (1988)

* Green, Anna, and ~~Kathleeen~~Kathleen Troup. ''The Houses of History: A Critical Reader in Twentieth Century History and Theory''. 2 ed. Manchester University Press, 2016.

* [[Pat Hudson|Hudson, Pat]]. ''History by Numbers: An Introduction to Quantitative Approaches'' (2002)

*[[Jarzombek, Mark]], ''A Prolegomenon to Critical Historiography,'' Journal of Architectural Education 52/4 (May 1999): 197-206 [https://www.markjarzombekprofile.com/_files/ugd/cc6e57_cfb1b2d86f7745d1aad8a1c3ce909a56.pdf]