Hypnosis: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

Article Images

Line 12:

There are competing theories explaining hypnosis and related phenomena. ''Altered state'' theories see hypnosis as an [[altered state of mind]] or [[trance]], marked by a level of awareness different from the ordinary [[Consciousness|state of consciousness]].<ref>''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 2004: "a special psychological state with certain physiological attributes, resembling sleep only superficially and marked by a functioning of the individual at a level of awareness other than the ordinary conscious state".</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Erika Fromm|author2=Ronald E. Shor|title=Hypnosis: Developments in Research and New Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fgBrdEoTu3AC&q=hypnosis|access-date=27 September 2014|date=2009|publisher=Rutgers|isbn=978-0-202-36262-5|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702162804/https://books.google.com/books?id=fgBrdEoTu3AC&q=hypnosis|url-status=live}}</ref> In contrast, ''non-state'' theories see hypnosis as, variously, a type of placebo effect,<ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kirsch I | title = Clinical hypnosis as a nondeceptive placebo: empirically derived techniques | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 95–106 | date = October 1994 | pmid = 7992808 | doi = 10.1080/00029157.1994.10403122}}</ref><ref name=":1">Kirsch, I., "Clinical Hypnosis as a Nondeceptive Placebo", pp. 211–25 in Kirsch, I., Capafons, A., Cardeña-Buelna, E., Amigó, S. (eds.), ''Clinical Hypnosis and Self-Regulation: Cognitive-Behavioral Perspectives'', American Psychological Association, (Washington), 1999 {{ISBN|1-55798-535-9}}</ref> a redefinition of an interaction with a therapist<ref>{{cite book|title=Hypnosis: A Scientific Approach|author=Theodore X. Barber|publisher=J. Aronson, 1995|year=1969|isbn=978-1-56821-740-6|author-link=Theodore X. Barber}}</ref> or a form of imaginative [[Role theory|role enactment]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Lynn S, Fassler O, Knox J|title=Hypnosis and the altered state debate: something more or nothing more?|doi=10.1002/ch.21|year=2005|journal=Contemporary Hypnosis|volume=22|pages=39–45}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Coe WC, Buckner LG, Howard ML, Kobayashi K | title = Hypnosis as role enactment: focus on a role specific skill | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–45 | date = July 1972 | pmid = 4679790 | doi = 10.1080/00029157.1972.10402209}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Steven J. Lynn|author2=Judith W. Rhue|title=Theories of hypnosis: current models and perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ez7Nq80QMtoC|access-date=30 October 2011|year=1991|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-0-89862-343-7|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702162816/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ez7Nq80QMtoC|url-status=live}}</ref>

During hypnosis, a person is said to have heightened focus and [[Attentional control|concentration]]<ref>Orne, M. T. (1962). On the social psychology of the psychological experiment: With particular reference to demand characteristics and their implications. American
Psychologist, 17, 776-783</ref><ref name="Segi">{{cite journal | last= Segi |first= Sherril |year=2012 |title=Hypnosis for pain management, anxiety and behavioral disorders |journal=The Clinical Advisor: For Nurse Practitioners|issn=1524-7317|volume=15|issue=3|page=80}}</ref> and an increased response to suggestions.<ref>[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/07/neural_pathways.html Lyda, Alex. "Hypnosis Gaining Ground in Medicine." Columbia News] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007194608/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/05/07/neural_pathways.html |date=7 October 2008 }}. Columbia.edu. Retrieved on 1 October 2011.</ref>

Hypnosis usually begins with a [[hypnotic induction]] involving a series of preliminary instructions and suggestions. The use of hypnosis for therapeutic purposes is referred to as "[[hypnotherapy]]",<ref>Spanos, N. P., Spillane, J., & McPeake, J. D. (1976). Cognitive strategies and response to suggestion in hypnotic
and task-motivated subjects. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis, 18, 252-262.</ref> while its use as a form of entertainment for an audience is known as "[[stage hypnosis]]", a form of [[mentalism]].

Hypnosis-based therapies for the management of [[irritable bowel syndrome]] and [[menopause]] are supported by evidence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Peters|first1=S. L.|last2=Yao|first2=C. K.|last3=Philpott|first3=H.|last4=Yelland|first4=G. W.|last5=Muir|first5=J. G.|last6=Gibson|first6=P. R.|date=2016|title=Randomised clinical trial: the efficacy of gut-directed hypnotherapy is similar to that of the low FODMAP diet for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome|journal=Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics|language=en|volume=44|issue=5|pages=447–459|doi=10.1111/apt.13706|pmid=27397586|s2cid=42525698|issn=1365-2036|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lacy|first1=Brian E.|last2=Pimentel|first2=Mark|last3=Brenner|first3=Darren M.|last4=Chey|first4=William D.|last5=Keefer|first5=Laurie A.|last6=Long|first6=Millie D.|last7=Moshiree|first7=Baha|date=January 2021|title=ACG Clinical Guideline: Management of Irritable Bowel Syndrome|journal= American Journal of Gastroenterology|language=en-US|volume=116|issue=1|pages=17–44|doi=10.14309/ajg.0000000000001036|pmid=33315591|issn=0002-9270|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov">{{Cite journal|last1=Elkins|first1=Gary R.|last2=Fisher|first2=William I.|last3=Johnson|first3=Aimee K.|last4=Carpenter|first4=Janet S.|last5=Keith|first5=Timothy Z.|date=March 2013|title=Clinical Hypnosis in the Treatment of Post-Menopausal Hot Flashes: A Randomized Controlled Trial|journal=Menopause|volume=20|issue=3|pages=291–298|doi=10.1097/GME.0b013e31826ce3ed|issn=1072-3714|pmc=3556367|pmid=23435026}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite journal|date=November 2015|title=Nonhormonal management of menopause-associated vasomotor symptoms: 2015 position statement of The North American Menopause Society|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26382310/|journal=Menopause|volume=22|issue=11|pages=1155–1172; quiz 1173–1174|doi=10.1097/GME.0000000000000546|issn=1530-0374|pmid=26382310|s2cid=14841660|access-date=7 September 2021|archive-date=22 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322145613/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26382310/|url-status=live}}</ref> Use of hypnosis for treatment of other problems has produced mixed results, such as with [[smoking cessation]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Hypnotherapy is more effective than nicotine replacement therapy for smoking cessation: Results of a randomized controlled trial|year=2014|doi=10.1016/j.ctim.2013.12.012|language=en|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0965229913002100|last1=Hasan|first1=Faysal M.|last2=Zagarins|first2=Sofija E.|last3=Pischke|first3=Karen M.|last4=Saiyed|first4=Shamila|last5=Bettencourt|first5=Ann Marie|last6=Beal|first6=Laura|last7=Macys|first7=Diane|last8=Aurora|first8=Sanjay|last9=McCleary|first9=Nancy|journal=Complementary Therapies in Medicine|volume=22|issue=1|pages=1–8|pmid=24559809|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=22 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211222162421/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0965229913002100|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Hypnosis for smoking cessation: a randomized trial|year=2008|pmid=18569754|language=en|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18569754/|last1=Carmody|first1=T. P.|last2=Duncan|first2=C.|last3=Simon|first3=J. A.|last4=Solkowitz|first4=S.|last5=Huggins|first5=J.|last6=Lee|first6=S.|last7=Delucchi|first7=K.|journal=Nicotine & Tobacco Research|volume=10|issue=5|pages=811–818|doi=10.1080/14622200802023833|s2cid=36395279|access-date=2 March 2021|archive-date=3 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303055959/https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18569754/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Barnes|first1=Joanne|last2=McRobbie|first2=Hayden|last3=Dong|first3=Christine Y|last4=Walker|first4=Natalie|last5=Hartmann-Boyce|first5=Jamie|date=2019-06-14|editor-last=Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group|title=Hypnotherapy for smoking cessation|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2019|issue=6|pages=CD001008|language=en|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001008.pub3|pmc=6568235|pmid=31198991}}</ref> The use of hypnosis as a form of therapy to retrieve and integrate early trauma is controversial within the scientific mainstream. Research indicates that hypnotising an individual may aid the formation of false memories,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lynn |first1=Steven Jay |last2=Krackow |first2=Elisa |last3=Loftus |first3=Elizabeth F. |author-link3=Elizabeth Loftus |last4=Locke |first4=Timothy G. |last5=Lilienfeld |first5=Scott O. |author-link5=Scott Lilienfeld |date=2014 |chapter=Constructing the past: problematic memory recovery techniques in psychotherapy |editor1-last=Lilienfeld |editor1-first=Scott O. |editor2-last=Lynn |editor2-first=Steven Jay |editor3-last=Lohr |editor3-first=Jeffrey M. |title=Science and pseudoscience in clinical psychology |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |pages=245–275 |isbn=9781462517510 |oclc=890851087}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=French |first=Christopher C. |url=https://www.academia.edu/101922617 |title=The Reliability of UFO Witness Testimony |publisher=UPIAR |year=2023 |isbn=9791281441002 |editor-last=Ballester-Olmos |editor-first=V.J. |location=Turin, Italy |pages=283–294 |chapter=Hypnotic Regression and False Memories |editor-last2=Heiden |editor-first2=Richard W.}}</ref> and that hypnosis "does not help people recall events more accurately".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hall |first1=Celia |title=Hypnosis does not help accurate memory recall, says study |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1338671/Hypnosis-does-not-help-accurate-memory-recall-says-study.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1338671/Hypnosis-does-not-help-accurate-memory-recall-says-study.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |website=Telegraph |access-date=11 March 2019|date=26 August 2001}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Medical hypnosis is often considered [[pseudoscience]] or [[quackery]].<ref name="Naudet Falissard Boussageon Healy 2015 pp. 631–634">{{cite journal | last1=Naudet | first1=Florian | last2=Falissard | first2=Bruno |author2-link= Bruno Falissard | last3=Boussageon | first3=Rémy | last4=Healy | first4=David | title=Has evidence-based medicine left quackery behind? | journal=Internal and Emergency Medicine | volume=10 | issue=5 | date=2015 | issn=1970-9366 | pmid=25828467 | doi=10.1007naud/s11739-015-1227-3 | pages=631–634 | s2cid=20697592 | url=https://hal-univ-rennes1.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01138648/file/Has%20evidence-based%20medicine%20left%20quackery%20behind_accepted.pdf | quote=Treatments such as relaxation techniques, chiropractic, therapeutic massage, special diets, megavitamins, acupuncture, naturopathy, homeopathy, hypnosis and psychoanalysis are often considered as ‘‘pseudoscience’’ or ‘‘quackery’’ with no credible or respectable place in medicine, because in evaluation they have not been shown to ‘‘work’’}}</ref>

== Etymology ==

The words ''hypnosis'' and ''hypnotism'' both derive from the term ''neuro-hypnotism'' (nervous sleep), all of which were coined by [[Étienne Félix d'Henin de Cuvillers]] in the 1820s. The term ''hypnosis'' is derived from the [[ancient Greek]] ὑπνος ''hypnos'', "sleep", and the [[suffix]] -ωσις -''osis'', or from ὑπνόω ''hypnoō'', "put to sleep" ([[Word stem|stem]] of [[aorist]] ''hypnōs''-) and the suffix -''is''.<ref>''{{LSJ|u(/pnos|hypnos}}'', ''{{LSJ|u(pno/w|hypnoō|ref}}''.</ref><ref>{{OEtymD|hypnosis}}</ref> These words were popularised in [[English language|English]] by the [[Scotland|Scottish]] surgeon [[James Braid (surgeon)|James Braid]] (to whom they are sometimes wrongly attributed) around 1841.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} Braid based his practice on that developed by [[Franz Mesmer]] and his followers (which was called "Mesmerism" or "[[animal magnetism]]"), but differed in his theory as to how the procedure worked.

== Definition and classification ==

~~== History ==~~

~~{{Main|History of hypnosis}}~~

~~=== Precursors ===~~

People have been entering into hypnotic-type trances for thousands of years. In many cultures and religions, it was regarded as a form of meditation. The earliest record of a description of a hypnotic state can be found in the writings of [[Avicenna]], a Persian physician who wrote about "trance" in 1027.<ref name="SI Hall" /> Modern-day hypnosis started in the late 18th century and was made popular by [[Franz Mesmer]], a German physician who became known as the father of "modern hypnotism". Hypnosis was known at the time as "Mesmerism" being named after Mesmer.

Mesmer held the opinion that hypnosis was a sort of mystical force that flows from the hypnotist to the person being hypnotised, but his theory was dismissed by critics who asserted that there is no magical element to hypnotism.

[[Abbé Faria]], a Luso-Goan Catholic monk, was one of the pioneers of the scientific study of hypnotism, following on from the work of Franz Mesmer. Unlike Mesmer, who claimed that hypnosis was mediated by "animal magnetism", Faria believed that it worked purely by the power of suggestion.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Faria |first1=Abbé |title=De la cause du sommeil lucide ou étude de la nature de l'homme |year=1906 |publisher=Jouve, 1906 |pages=362 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4YE0zAEACAAJ |access-date=26 August 2020 |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702162804/https://books.google.com/books?id=4YE0zAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Faria |first1=Abbé |title=Of the Cause of Lucid Sleep or Study of the Nature of Man |year=2014 |publisher=CinammonTeal Publishing |isbn=9789383175635 |pages=392 |url=https://www.thedogearsbookshop.com/shop/books/non-fiction/biography/of-the-cause-of-lucid-sleep-or-study-of-the-nature-of-man/ |access-date=31 May 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308131737/https://www.thedogearsbookshop.com/shop/books/non-fiction/biography/of-the-cause-of-lucid-sleep-or-study-of-the-nature-of-man/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Before long, hypnotism started finding its way into the world of modern medicine. The use of hypnotism in the medical field was made popular by surgeons and physicians like [[Elliotson]] and [[James Esdaile]] and researchers like James Braid who helped to reveal the biological and physical benefits of hypnotism.<ref>{{cite book | last=Cooper | first=Richard | title=Hypnosis beginners guide: learn how to use hypnosis to relieve stress, anxiety, depression and become happier | publisher=CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-5330-5569-9 | oclc=957492981 | page=}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=February 2022|certain=yes}} According to his writings, Braid began to hear reports concerning various Oriental [[meditation|meditative practices]] soon after the release of his first publication on hypnotism, ''Neurypnology'' (1843). He first discussed some of these oriental practices in a series of articles entitled ''Magic, Mesmerism, Hypnotism, etc., Historically & Physiologically Considered''. He drew analogies between his own practice of hypnotism and various forms of Hindu yoga meditation and other ancient spiritual practices, especially those involving [[Premature burial#Voluntary|voluntary burial]] and apparent [[human hibernation]]. Braid's interest in these practices stems from his studies of the ''[[Dabistān-i Mazāhib]]'', the "School of Religions", an ancient Persian text describing a wide variety of Oriental religious rituals, beliefs, and practices.

~~{{blockquote|text=~~

Last May [1843], a gentleman residing in Edinburgh, personally unknown to me, who had long resided in India, favored me with a letter expressing his approbation of the views which I had published on the nature and causes of hypnotic and mesmeric phenomena. In corroboration of my views, he referred to what he had previously witnessed in oriental regions, and recommended me to look into the ''Dabistan'', a book lately published, for additional proof to the same effect. On much recommendation I immediately sent for a copy of the ''Dabistan'', in which I found many statements corroborative of the fact, that the eastern saints are all self-hypnotisers, adopting means essentially the same as those which I had recommended for similar purposes.<ref>Braid, J. (1844/1855), "Magic, Mesmerism, Hypnotism, etc., etc. Historically and Physiologically Considered", [https://books.google.com/books?id=QB8CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7 ''The Medical Times'', Vol. 11] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702162805/https://books.google.com/books?id=QB8CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP7 |date=2 July 2023 }}, No. 272, (7 December 1844), pp. 203–04, No. 273, (14 December 1844), pp. 224–27, No. 275, (28 December 1844), pp. 270–73, No. 276, (4 January 1845), pp. 296–299, No. 277, (11 January 1845), pp. 318–20, No. 281, (8 February 1845), pp. 399–400, and No. 283, (22 February 1845), pp. 439–41: at [https://books.google.com/books?id=QB8CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA206 p. 203] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702162848/https://books.google.com/books?id=QB8CAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA206 |date=2 July 2023 }}.</ref>}}

Although he rejected the transcendental/metaphysical interpretation given to these phenomena outright, Braid accepted that these accounts of Oriental practices supported his view that the effects of hypnotism could be produced in solitude, without the presence of any other person (as he had already proved to his own satisfaction with the experiments he had conducted in November 1841), and he saw correlations between many of the "metaphysical" Oriental practices and his own "rational" neuro-hypnotism, and totally rejected all of the fluid theories and magnetic practices of the mesmerists. As he later wrote:

~~{{blockquote|text=~~

In as much as patients can throw themselves into the nervous sleep, and manifest all the usual phenomena of Mesmerism, through their own unaided efforts, as I have so repeatedly proved by causing them to maintain a steady fixed gaze at any point, concentrating their whole mental energies on the idea of the object looked at; or that the same may arise by the patient looking at the point of his own finger, or as the Magi of Persia and Yogi of India have practised for the last 2,400 years, for religious purposes, throwing themselves into their ecstatic trances by each maintaining a steady fixed gaze at the tip of his own nose; it is obvious that there is no need for an exoteric influence to produce the phenomena of Mesmerism. ... The great object in all these processes is to induce a habit of abstraction or concentration of attention, in which the subject is entirely absorbed with one idea, or train of ideas, whilst he is unconscious of, or indifferently conscious to, every other object, purpose, or action.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Braid, J. |url=http://wehypnosis.com/20/power-mind-over-body-james-braid/|title=The Power of the Mind over the Body: An Experimental Inquiry into the nature and cause of the Phenomena attributed by Baron Reichenbach and others to a 'New Imponderable – Hypnosis explained' |journal=The Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal|volume=66|year=1846|pages=286–311 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100523162338/http://wehypnosis.com/20/power-mind-over-body-james-braid/|archive-date=23 May 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>}}

~~==== Avicenna ====~~

[[Avicenna]] (980–1037), a Persian physician, documented the characteristics of the "trance" (hypnotic trance) state in 1027. At that time, hypnosis as a medical treatment was seldom used; the German doctor Franz Mesmer reintroduced it in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book|first=Catherine |last=Collin | name-list-style = vanc |display-authors=etal|title=The psychology book|date=2011|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|location=London|isbn=978-1-4053-9124-5|page=22}}</ref>

~~==== Franz Mesmer ====~~

[[Franz Mesmer]] (1734–1815) believed that there is a [[magnetic force]] or "fluid" called "animal magnetism" within the universe that influences the health of the human body. He experimented with magnets to affect this field in order to produce healing. By around 1774, he had concluded that the same effect could be created by passing the hands in front of the subject's body, later referred to as making "Mesmeric passes".<ref>The word "mesmerise", formed from the last name of Franz Mesmer, was intentionally used to separate practitioners of mesmerism from the various "fluid" and "magnetic" theories included within the label "magnetism".</ref>

In 1784, at the request of [[Louis XVI of France|King Louis XVI]], two [[Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism|Royal Commissions on Animal Magnetism]] were specifically charged with (separately) investigating the claims made by one Charles d'Eslon (1750–1786), a disaffected student of Mesmer, for the existence of a substantial (rather than metaphorical, as Mesmer supposed) "[[animal magnetism]]", ''''''le magnétisme animal'''''', and of a similarly physical "[[Animal magnetism#"Magnetizer"|magnetic fluid]]", ''''''le fluide magnétique''''''. Among the investigators were the scientist, [[Antoine Lavoisier]], an expert in electricity and terrestrial magnetism, [[Benjamin Franklin]], and an expert in pain control, [[Joseph-Ignace Guillotin]].

The Commissioners investigated the practices of d'Eslon, and, although they accepted, without question, that Mesmer's "cures" were, indeed, "cures", they did not investigate [[Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism#Mesmer's "cures" were never investigated|whether (or not) Mesmer was the agent of those "cures"]]. Significantly, in their investigations of d'Eslon's procedures, they conducted an expansive series of [[randomized controlled trials]], the experimental protocols of which were designed by Lavoisier, including the application of both "sham" and "genuine" procedures and, significantly, the first use of "[[Blinded experiment|blindfolding]]" of both the investigators and their subjects.

From their investigations, both Commissions concluded that there was no evidence of any kind to support d'Eslon's claim for the [[Abstract and concrete|substantial physical existence]] of either his supposed "animal magnetism" or his supposed "magnetic fluid", and, in the process, they determined that all of the effects they had observed could be directly attributed to a physiological (rather than metaphysical) agency—namely, that all of the experimentally observed phenomena could be directly attributed to "contact", "imagination", and/or "imitation".

~~~~

~~Eventually, Mesmer left Paris and went back to Vienna to practise mesmerism.~~

~~==== James Braid ====~~

~~[[File:James Braid, portrait.jpg|thumb|200px|[[James Braid (surgeon)|James Braid]]]]~~

[[File:Braid's "upwards and inwards squint" induction method.tif|thumb|200px|Braid's "upwards and inwards squint" induction method, as demonstrated by James Coates (1843–1933) in 1904<ref>Coates (1904), Figure II, facing p.23.</ref>]]

Following the French committee's findings, [[Dugald Stewart]], an influential academic philosopher of the "[[Scottish School of Common Sense]]", encouraged physicians in his ''Elements of the Philosophy of the Human Mind'' (1818)<ref name=dugald>{{cite book|author=Dugald Stewart|title=Elements of the philosophy of the human mind|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/moa/AJE6414.0001.001?view=toc|access-date=1 October 2011|year=1818|publisher=Wells and Lilly|page=147|archive-date=8 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121108100327/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/moa/AJE6414.0001.001?view=toc|url-status=live}}</ref> to salvage elements of Mesmerism by replacing the supernatural theory of "animal magnetism" with a new interpretation based upon "common sense" laws of [[physiology]] and psychology. Braid quotes the following passage from Stewart:<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/magicwitchcraft00braigoog|title=Magic, witchcraft, animal magnetism [&c.].|date=11 July 1852|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>

~~{{blockquote|text=~~

It appears to me, that the general conclusions established by Mesmer's practice, with respect to the physical effects of the principle of imagination (more particularly in cases where they co-operated together), are incomparably more curious than if he had actually demonstrated the existence of his boasted science [of "animal magnetism"]: nor can I see any good reason why a physician, who admits the efficacy of the moral [i.e., psychological] agents employed by Mesmer, should, in the exercise of his profession, scruple to copy whatever processes are necessary for subjecting them to his command, any more than that he should hesitate about employing a new physical agent, such as electricity or galvanism.<ref name=dugald/>

}}

In Braid's day, the Scottish School of Common Sense provided the dominant theories of academic psychology, and Braid refers to other philosophers within this tradition throughout his writings. Braid therefore revised the theory and practice of mesmerism and developed his own method of hypnotism as a more rational and common sense alternative.

~~{{blockquote|text=~~

It may here be requisite for me to explain, that by the term Hypnotism, or Nervous Sleep, which frequently occurs in the following pages, I mean a peculiar condition of the nervous system, into which it may be thrown by artificial contrivance, and which differs, in several respects, from common sleep or the waking condition. I do not allege that this condition is induced through the transmission of a magnetic or occult influence from my body into that of my patients; nor do I profess, by my processes, to produce the higher [i.e., supernatural] phenomena of the Mesmerists. My pretensions are of a much more humble character, and are all consistent with generally admitted principles in physiological and psychological science. Hypnotism might therefore not inaptly be designated, Rational Mesmerism, in contra-distinction to the Transcendental Mesmerism of the Mesmerists.<ref>Braid, ''Observations on Trance or Human Hibernation'', 1850, 'Preface.'</ref>

}}

[[File:Affections of the Mind-(Thomas Brown)-(Yeates's representation).tif|thumb|Brown's "Affections of the Mind",<br>as discussed in his ''Lectures on the Philosophy of the Human Mind''.<ref>Yeates, 2005, p.119.</ref>]]

Despite briefly toying with the name "rational mesmerism" {{em-dash}} in "contra-distinction" to the entirely different "transcendental [i.e., 'metaphysical'] mesmerism" of the mesmerists<ref>Braid (1850), p. vi.</ref> {{em-dash}} and, eventually, deciding that '''psycho-physiology''' was a far more appropriate, and far more usefully descriptive name than '''hypnotism''',<ref>"By 1855 (i.e., Braid, 1855, p. 852), convinced that the real "cause" of the "altering or modifying physical action, or curing disease" was not the hypnotist — who "acts merely as the engineer, by various [methods], exciting, controlling, and directing the ''vital forces within the patient’s own body'', according to the laws which regulate the reciprocal action of mind and matter upon each other" — Braid was advocating replacing "hypnotism" as the "''generic term''" for "the whole of these phenomena which result from the reciprocal actions of mind and matter upon each other" with the far more "appropriate" term "''psycho-physiology''"." (Yeates, 2014, p. 20)</ref> Braid ultimately chose to emphasise the unique aspects of his approach, firmly based upon the "dominant idea" theories of his Edinburgh University teacher, the philosopher [[Thomas Brown (philosopher)|Thomas Brown, M.D.]],<ref>Yeates, 2005; 2018, pp. 21-22.</ref><ref>Brown (1851.</ref> carrying out informal experiments throughout his career {{em-dash}} in order to refute theories and practices that invoked (supposed) supernatural forces {{em-dash}} that demonstrated the role of ordinary physiological and psychological processes, such as suggestion and focused attention in producing the observed effects.

Braid worked very closely with his friend and ally the eminent physiologist Professor [[William Benjamin Carpenter]], an early neuro-psychologist who introduced the "ideo-motor reflex" theory of suggestion. Carpenter had observed instances of expectation and imagination apparently influencing involuntary muscle movement. A classic example of the ideo-motor principle in action is the so-called "Chevreul pendulum" (named after [[Michel Eugène Chevreul]]). Chevreul claimed that divinatory pendulae were made to swing by unconscious muscle movements brought about by focused concentration alone.

Braid soon assimilated Carpenter's observations into his own theory, realising that the effect of focusing attention was to enhance the ideo-motor reflex response. Braid extended Carpenter's theory to encompass the influence of the mind upon the body more generally, beyond the muscular system, and therefore referred to the "ideo-dynamic" response and coined the term "psycho-physiology" to refer to the study of general mind/body interaction.

In his later works, Braid reserved the term "hypnotism" for cases in which subjects entered a state of amnesia resembling sleep. For other cases, he spoke of a "mono-ideodynamic" principle to emphasise that the eye-fixation induction technique worked by narrowing the subject's attention to a single idea or train of thought ("monoideism"), which amplified the effect of the consequent "dominant idea" upon the subject's body by means of the ideo-dynamic principle.<ref>Braid, J. (1855), "[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2439104/pdf/assomedj00193-0004.pdf On the Nature and Treatment of Certain Forms of Paralysis]", ''Association Medical Journal'', ''3''(141), pp. 848-855: at p.852.</ref>

~~==== Hysteria vs. suggestion ====~~

For several decades, Braid's work became more influential abroad than in his own country, except for a handful of followers, most notably Dr. [[John Milne Bramwell]]. The eminent neurologist Dr. [[George Miller Beard]] took Braid's theories to America. Meanwhile, his works were translated into German by [[William Thierry Preyer]], Professor of Physiology at [[Jena University]]. The psychiatrist [[Albert Moll (German psychiatrist)|Albert Moll]] subsequently continued German research, publishing ''Hypnotism'' in 1889. France became the focal point for the study of Braid's ideas after the eminent neurologist Dr. [[Étienne Eugène Azam]] translated Braid's last manuscript (''On Hypnotism'', 1860) into French and presented Braid's research to the French [[Academy of Sciences]]. At the request of Azam, [[Paul Broca]], and others, the [[French Academy of Science]], which had investigated Mesmerism in 1784, examined Braid's writings shortly after his death.<ref>{{cite book | last = Braid | first = James | editor = Robertson, D. | title = The Discovery of Hypnosis: The Complete Writings of James Braid, the Father of Hypnotherapy | year = 2009 | publisher = UKCHH Ltd. | page = 23 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs35STwQYQoC | isbn = 978-0-9560570-0-6 | access-date = 7 November 2015 | archive-date = 2 July 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230702162805/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs35STwQYQoC | url-status = live }}</ref>

Azam's enthusiasm for hypnotism influenced [[Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault]], a country doctor. [[Hippolyte Bernheim]] discovered Liébeault's enormously popular group hypnotherapy clinic and subsequently became an influential hypnotist. The study of hypnotism subsequently revolved around the fierce debate between Bernheim and [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], the two most influential figures in late 19th-century hypnotism.

Charcot operated a clinic at the [[Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital]] (thus, known as [[The Salpêtrière School of Hypnosis|the "Paris School" or the "Salpêtrière School"]]), while Bernheim had a clinic in [[Nancy, France|Nancy]] (known as the "[[Nancy School]]"). Charcot, who was influenced more by the Mesmerists, argued that hypnotism was an abnormal state of nervous functioning found only in certain [[Hysteria|hysterical]] women. He claimed that it manifested in a series of physical reactions that could be divided into distinct stages. Bernheim argued that anyone could be hypnotised, that it was an extension of normal psychological functioning, and that its effects were due to suggestion. After decades of debate, Bernheim's view dominated. Charcot's theory is now just a historical curiosity.<ref>{{cite book | last = Braid | first = James | editor = Robertson, D. | title = The Discovery of Hypnosis: The Complete Writings of James Braid, the Father of Hypnotherapy | year = 2009 | publisher = UKCHH Ltd. | page = 55 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs35STwQYQoC | isbn = 978-0-9560570-0-6 | access-date = 7 November 2015 | archive-date = 2 July 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230702162805/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs35STwQYQoC | url-status = live }}</ref>

~~==== Pierre Janet ====~~

[[Pierre Janet]] (1859–1947) reported studies on a hypnotic subject in 1882. Charcot subsequently appointed him director of the psychological laboratory at the Salpêtrière in 1889, after Janet had completed his PhD, which dealt with psychological [[automatic behavior|automatism]]. In 1898, Janet was appointed psychology lecturer at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]], and in 1902 he became chair of experimental and comparative psychology at the [[Collège de France]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopædia Britannica. Entry for Janet, Pierre}}</ref> Janet reconciled elements of his views with those of Bernheim and his followers, developing his own sophisticated hypnotic [[psychotherapy]] based upon the concept of psychological [[dissociation (psychology)|dissociation]], which, at the turn of the century, rivalled Freud's attempt to provide a more comprehensive theory of psychotherapy.

~~==== Sigmund Freud ====~~

~~[[Sigmund Freud]] (1856–1939), the founder of [[psychoanalysis]], studied hypnotism at the Paris School and briefly visited the Nancy School.~~

At first, Freud was an enthusiastic proponent of hypnotherapy. He "initially hypnotised patients and pressed on their foreheads to help them concentrate while attempting to recover (supposedly) repressed memories",<ref>{{cite book | last = Braid | first = James | editor = Robertson, D. | title = The Discovery of Hypnosis: The Complete Writings of James Braid, the Father of Hypnotherapy | year = 2009 | publisher = UKCHH Ltd. | page = 56 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs35STwQYQoC | isbn = 978-0-9560570-0-6 | access-date = 7 November 2015 | archive-date = 2 July 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230702162805/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs35STwQYQoC | url-status = live }}</ref> and he soon began to emphasise hypnotic regression and ab reaction ([[catharsis]]) as therapeutic methods. He wrote a favorable encyclopedia article on hypnotism, translated one of Bernheim's works into German, and published an influential series of case studies with his colleague Joseph Breuer entitled ''[[Studies on Hysteria]]'' (1895). This became the founding text of the subsequent tradition known as "hypno-analysis" or "regression hypnotherapy".

However, Freud gradually abandoned hypnotism in favour of psychoanalysis, emphasising free association and interpretation of the unconscious. Struggling with the great expense of time that psychoanalysis required, Freud later suggested that it might be combined with hypnotic suggestion to hasten the outcome of treatment, but that this would probably weaken the outcome: "It is very probable, too, that the application of our therapy to numbers will compel us to alloy the pure gold of analysis plentifully with the copper of direct [hypnotic] suggestion."<ref>S. Freud, ''Lines of Advance in Psychoanalytic Therapy'', 1919</ref>

Only a handful of Freud's followers, however, were sufficiently qualified in hypnosis to attempt the synthesis. Their work had a limited influence on the hypno-therapeutic approaches now known variously as "hypnotic regression", "hypnotic progression", and "hypnoanalysis".

~~==== Émile Coué ====~~

~~[[File:Émile Coué 3.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Émile Coué]] developed [[autosuggestion]] as a psychological technique.]]~~

~~{{further|Autosuggestion}}~~

[[Émile Coué]] (1857–1926) assisted Ambroise-Auguste Liébeault for around two years at Nancy. After practising for several months employing the "hypnosis" of Liébeault and Bernheim's Nancy School, he abandoned their approach altogether. Later, Coué developed a new approach (c.1901) based on Braid-style "hypnotism", direct hypnotic suggestion, and ego-strengthening which eventually became known as ''La méthode Coué''.<ref>See Yeates, 2016a, 2016b, and 2016c.</ref> According to [[Charles Baudouin]], Coué founded what became known as the New Nancy School, a loose collaboration of practitioners who taught and promoted his views.<ref>Baudouin continuously spoke of a "New Nancy School": e.g., Baudouin (1920), p. 13.</ref><ref>It is significant that Coué never adopted Baudouin's designation "New Nancy School"; and, moreover, according to Glueck (1923, p. 112), who visited Coué at Nancy in 1922, Coué was "rather annoyed" with Baudouin's unauthorized characterization of his enterprise.</ref> Coué's method did not emphasise "sleep" or deep relaxation, but instead focused upon [[autosuggestion]] involving a specific series of suggestion tests. Although Coué argued that he was no longer using hypnosis, followers such as [[Charles Baudouin]] viewed his approach as a form of light self-hypnosis. Coué's method became a renowned [[self-help]] and psychotherapy technique, which contrasted with psychoanalysis and prefigured self-hypnosis and [[cognitive therapy]].

~~==== Clark L. Hull ====~~

The next major development came from [[behavioural psychology]] in American university research. [[Clark L. Hull]] (1884–1952), an eminent American psychologist, published the first major compilation of laboratory studies on hypnosis, ''Hypnosis & Suggestibility'' (1933), in which he proved that hypnosis and sleep had nothing in common. Hull published many quantitative findings from hypnosis and suggestion experiments and encouraged research by mainstream psychologists. Hull's behavioural psychology interpretation of hypnosis, emphasising conditioned reflexes, rivalled the Freudian psycho-dynamic interpretation which emphasised unconscious transference.

~~==== Dave Elman ====~~

Although [[Dave Elman]] (1900–1967) was a noted radio host, comedian, and songwriter, he also made a name as a hypnotist. He led many courses for physicians, and in 1964 wrote the book ''Findings in Hypnosis'', later to be retitled ''Hypnotherapy'' (published by Westwood Publishing). Perhaps the most well-known aspect of Elman's legacy is his method of induction, which was originally fashioned for speed work and later adapted for the use of medical professionals.

~~==== Milton Erickson ====~~

[[Milton H. Erickson|Milton Erickson]] (1901–1980), the founding president of the [[American Society for Clinical Hypnosis]] and a fellow of the [[American Psychiatric Association]], the [[American Psychological Association]], and the [[American Psychopathological Association]], was one of the most influential post-war hypnotherapists. He wrote several books and journal articles on the subject. During the 1960s, Erickson popularised a new branch of hypnotherapy, known as [[Milton H. Erickson#Ericksonian approaches|Ericksonian therapy]], characterised primarily by indirect suggestion, "metaphor" (actually analogies), confusion techniques, and [[double bind]]s in place of formal hypnotic inductions. However, the difference between Erickson's methods and traditional hypnotism led contemporaries such as [[André Muller Weitzenhoffer|André Weitzenhoffer]] to question whether he was practising "hypnosis" at all, and his approach remains in question.

~~{{blockquote|text=~~

Erickson had no hesitation in presenting any suggested effect as being "hypnosis", whether or not the subject was in a hypnotic state. In fact, he was not hesitant in passing off behaviour that was dubiously hypnotic as being hypnotic.<ref>{{cite book|author=André Muller Weitzenhoffer|title=The practice of hypnotism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oeE64K1_SRUC&pg=PA419|access-date=30 October 2011|year=2000|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-471-29790-1|pages=419–|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702163306/https://books.google.com/books?id=oeE64K1_SRUC&pg=PA419|url-status=live}}</ref>

}}

But during numerous witnessed and recorded encounters in clinical, experimental, and academic settings Erickson was able to evoke examples of classic hypnotic phenomena such as [[Closed-eye hallucination|positive]] and negative hallucinations, anesthesia, analgesia (in childbirth and even terminal cancer patients), catalepsy, regression to provable events in subjects' early lives and even into infantile reflexology. Erickson stated in his own writings that there was no correlation between hypnotic depth and therapeutic success and that the quality of the applied psychotherapy outweighed the need for deep hypnosis in many cases. Hypnotic depth was to be pursued for research purposes.<ref></Erickson, Rossi, and Rossi: "Hypnotic Realities" New York, Irvington Publishers 1976>

~~</ref>~~

~~==== Cognitive-behavioural ====~~

~~In the latter half of the 20th century, two factors contributed to the development of the cognitive-behavioural approach to hypnosis:~~

# Cognitive and behavioural theories of the nature of hypnosis (influenced by the theories of Sarbin<ref>Sarbin, T.R. & Coe, W.C. (1972). Hypnosis: A Social Psychological Analysis of Influence Communication.</ref> and Barber<ref name="Barber, Spanos 1974">[https://books.google.com/books?id=fCRsAAAAMAAJ Barber, TX, Spanos, NP. & Chaves, JF., ''Hypnosis, imagination, and human potentialities''. Pergamon Press, 1974.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702163311/https://books.google.com/books?id=fCRsAAAAMAAJ |date=2 July 2023 }} {{ISBN|0-08-017931-2}}.</ref>) became increasingly influential.

# The therapeutic practices of hypnotherapy and various forms of cognitive behavioural therapy overlapped and influenced each other.<ref>{{cite book|author=Assen Alladin|title=Cognitive hypnotherapy: an integrated approach to the treatment of emotional disorders|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s5Z6oaMA8moC|access-date=30 October 2011|date=21 April 2008|publisher=John Wiley and Sons|isbn=978-0-470-03247-3|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702163307/https://books.google.com/books?id=s5Z6oaMA8moC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Robertson_2012">{{cite book| author=Robertson, D| title=The Practice of Cognitive-Behavioural Hypnotherapy: A Manual for Evidence-Based Clinical Hypnosis| year=2012| publisher=Karnac| location=London| isbn=978-1-85575-530-7| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=um6_7kEszusC| access-date=7 November 2015| archive-date=2 July 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702163310/https://books.google.com/books?id=um6_7kEszusC| url-status=live}}</ref>

Although cognitive-behavioural theories of hypnosis must be distinguished from cognitive-behavioural approaches to hypnotherapy, they share similar concepts, terminology, and assumptions and have been integrated by influential researchers and clinicians such as [[Irving Kirsch]], [[Steven Jay Lynn]], and others.<ref name="Chapman">{{cite book|author=Robin A. Chapman|title=The clinical use of hypnosis in cognitive behavior therapy: a practitioner's casebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6UpFP2fIqcC|access-date=30 October 2011|year=2006|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-2884-3|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702163307/https://books.google.com/books?id=u6UpFP2fIqcC|url-status=live}}</ref>

At the outset of [[cognitive-behavioural therapy|cognitive behavioural therapy]] during the 1950s, hypnosis was used by early behaviour therapists such as [[Joseph Wolpe]]<ref>Wolpe, J. (1958) Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition.</ref> and also by early cognitive therapists such as [[Albert Ellis (psychologist)|Albert Ellis]].<ref>Ellis, A. (1962). Reason & Emotion in Psychotherapy.</ref> Barber, Spanos, and Chaves introduced the term "cognitive-behavioural" to describe their "nonstate" theory of hypnosis in ''Hypnosis, imagination, and human potentialities''.<ref name="Barber, Spanos 1974"/> However, [[Clark L. Hull]] had introduced a behavioural psychology as far back as 1933, which in turn was preceded by [[Ivan Pavlov]].<ref>Hull, C.L. (1933). Hypnosis & Suggestibility.</ref> Indeed, the earliest theories and practices of hypnotism, even those of Braid, resemble the cognitive-behavioural orientation in some respects.<ref name="Robertson_2012"/><ref name=br/>

~~== Definition ==~~

A person in a state of hypnosis has focused attention, and has increased [[suggestibility]].<ref>T.L. Brink. (2008) Psychology: A Student Friendly Approach. "Unit 5: Perception." p. 88 [http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/TLBrink_PSYCH05.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120416002209/http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/TLBrink_PSYCH05.pdf|date=16 April 2012}}</ref>

Line 147 ⟶ 44:

Joe Griffin and [[Ivan Tyrrell]] (the originators of the [[Human givens|human givens approach]]) define hypnosis as "any artificial way of accessing the [[Rapid eye movement sleep|REM]] state, the same brain state in which dreaming occurs" and suggest that this definition, when properly understood, resolves "many of the mysteries and controversies surrounding hypnosis".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Griffin |first1=Joe |last2=Tyrrell |first2=Ivan |name-list-style=vanc |title=Human Givens: The new approach to emotional health and clear thinking |date=2013 |publisher=HG Publishing |isbn=978-1-899398-31-7 |page=67 |url=http://www.humangivens.com/publications/human-givens-book.html |access-date=24 February 2015 |archive-date=8 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008073609/http://www.humangivens.com/publications/human-givens-book.html |url-status=live }}</ref> They see the REM state as being vitally important for life itself, for programming in our instinctive knowledge initially (after Dement<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Roffwarg HP, Muzio JN, Dement WC | title = Ontogenetic development of the human sleep-dream cycle | journal = Science | volume = 152 | issue = 3722 | pages = 604–19 | date = April 1966 | pmid = 17779492 | doi = 10.1126/science.152.3722.604 | bibcode = 1966Sci...152..604R}}</ref> and Jouvet<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Does a genetic programming of the brain occur during paradoxical sleep |year=1978 |first=M |last=Jouvet |editor-last1=Buser|editor-first1=Pierre A.|editor-last2=Rougeul-Buser|editor-first2=Arlette| name-list-style = vanc |title=Cerebral correlates of conscious experience: proceedings of an international symposium on cerebral correlates of conscious experience, held in Senanque Abbey, France, on 2–8 August 1977|publisher=North-Holland|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7204-0659-7}}</ref>) and then for adding to this throughout life. They attempt to explain this by asserting that, in a sense, all learning is post-hypnotic, which they say explains why the number of ways people can be put into a hypnotic state are so varied: according to them, anything that focuses a person's attention, inward or outward, puts them into a trance.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Griffin|first1=Joe|last2=Tyrrell|first2=Ivan|name-list-style=vanc|title=Godhead: the brain's big bang: the strange origin of creativity, mysticism and mental illness|date=2011|publisher=Human Givens|location=Chalvington|isbn=978-1-899398-27-0|pages=106–22|url=http://www.griffintyrrell.co.uk/creativity-mysticism-and-mental-illness.php|access-date=24 February 2015|archive-date=25 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325000932/http://www.griffintyrrell.co.uk/creativity-mysticism-and-mental-illness.php|url-status=live}}</ref>

Medical hypnosis is often considered [[pseudoscience]] or [[quackery]].<ref name=naud>{{cite journal | last1=Naudet | first1=Florian | last2=Falissard | first2=Bruno |author2-link= Bruno Falissard | last3=Boussageon | first3=Rémy | last4=Healy | first4=David | title=Has evidence-based medicine left quackery behind? | journal=Internal and Emergency Medicine | volume=10 | issue=5 | date=2015 | issn=1970-9366 | pmid=25828467 | doi=10.1007/s11739-015-1227-3 | pages=631–634 | s2cid=20697592 | url=https://hal-univ-rennes1.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01138648/file/Has%20evidence-based%20medicine%20left%20quackery%20behind_accepted.pdf | quote=Treatments such as relaxation techniques, chiropractic, therapeutic massage, special diets, megavitamins, acupuncture, naturopathy, homeopathy, hypnosis and psychoanalysis are often considered as ‘‘pseudoscience’’ or ‘‘quackery’’ with no credible or respectable place in medicine, because in evaluation they have not been shown to ‘‘work’’}}</ref>

== Induction ==

Hypnosis is normally preceded by a "hypnotic induction" technique. Traditionally, this was interpreted as a method of putting the subject into a "hypnotic trance"; however, subsequent "nonstate" theorists have viewed it differently, seeing it as a means of heightening client expectation, defining their role, focusing attention, etc. The induction techniques and methods are dependent on the depth of hypnotic trance level and for each stage of trance, the number of which in some sources ranges from 30 stages to 50 stages, there are different types of inductions.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Irawan |first1=Chandra |title=COMBINATION OF HYPNOSIS THERAPY AND RANGE OF MOTION EXERCISE ON UPPER-EXTREMITY MUSCLE STRENGTH IN PATIENTS WITH NON-HEMORRAGHIC STROKE |url=https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-depth-of-hypnosis-influence-with-scores-and-objective-symptoms-based-on-The-Davis_tbl1_331217313 |website=researchgate.net |access-date=4 May 2022 |archive-date=4 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220504091654/https://www.researchgate.net/figure/The-depth-of-hypnosis-influence-with-scores-and-objective-symptoms-based-on-The-Davis_tbl1_331217313 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are several different induction techniques. One of the most influential methods was Braid's "eye-fixation" technique, also known as "Braidism". Many variations of the eye-fixation approach exist, including the induction used in the [[Hypnotic susceptibility|Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale]] (SHSS), the most widely used research tool in the field of hypnotism.<ref name="Weitzenhoffer">{{cite book |last= Weitzenhoffer & Hilgard |title= Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scales, Forms A & B. |year= 1959 |publisher= Consulting Psychologists Press |location= Palo Alto, CA}}</ref> Braid's original description of his induction is as follows:{{blockquote|Take any bright object (e.g. a lancet case) between the thumb and fore and middle fingers of the left hand; hold it from about eight to fifteen inches from the eyes, at such position above the forehead as may be necessary to produce the greatest possible strain upon the eyes and eyelids, and enable the patient to maintain a steady fixed stare at the object.<br /><br />The patient must be made to understand that he is to keep the eyes steadily fixed on the object, and the mind riveted on the idea of that one object. It will be observed, that owing to the consensual adjustment of the eyes, the pupils will be at first contracted: They will shortly begin to dilate, and, after they have done so to a considerable extent, and have assumed a wavy motion, if the fore and middle fingers of the right hand, extended and a little separated, are carried from the object toward the eyes, most probably the eyelids will close involuntarily, with a vibratory motion. If this is not the case, or the patient allows the eyeballs to move, desire him to begin anew, giving him to understand that he is to allow the eyelids to close when the fingers are again carried towards the eyes, but that the eyeballs must be kept fixed, in the same position, and the mind riveted to the one idea of the object held above the eyes. In general, it will be found, that the eyelids close with a vibratory motion, or become spasmodically closed.<ref>Braid (1843), p. 27.</ref>}}

Braid later acknowledged that the hypnotic induction technique was not necessary in every case, and subsequent researchers have generally found that on average it contributes less than previously expected to the effect of hypnotic suggestions.<ref name="Barber, Spanos 1974">[https://books.google.com/books?id=fCRsAAAAMAAJ Barber, TX, Spanos, NP. & Chaves, JF., ''Hypnosis, imagination, and human potentialities''. Pergamon Press, 1974.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702163311/https://books.google.com/books?id=fCRsAAAAMAAJ |date=2 July 2023 }} {{ISBN|0-08-017931-2}}.</ref> Variations and alternatives to the original hypnotic induction techniques were subsequently developed. However, this method is still considered authoritative.{{Citation needed|date=July 2016}} In 1941, Robert White wrote: "It can be safely stated that nine out of ten hypnotic techniques call for reclining posture, muscular relaxation, and optical fixation followed by eye closure."<ref>{{cite journal|year=1941|title=A preface to the theory of hypnotism|journal=Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology|volume=36|issue=4|pages=477–505 (498)|doi=10.1037/h0053844|author=White, Robert W.}}</ref>

== Suggestion ==

Line 202 ⟶ 101:

* [[Addiction]]s<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kraft T, Kraft D |year=2005 |title=Covert sensitization revisited: Six case studies |url=http://www.londonpsychotherapy.co.uk/pdf/1.pdf |journal=Contemporary Hypnosis |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=202–09 |doi=10.1002/ch.10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119123828/http://www.londonpsychotherapy.co.uk/pdf/1.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2012}}</ref><ref name="Elkins">{{cite journal | vauthors = Elkins GR, Rajab MH | title = Clinical hypnosis for smoking cessation: preliminary results of a three-session intervention | journal = The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis | volume = 52 | issue = 1 | pages = 73–81 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14768970 | doi = 10.1076/iceh.52.1.73.23921 | s2cid = 6065271}}</ref>

* [[Age regression in therapy|Age regression hypnotherapy]] (or "hypnoanalysis")

* Cognitive-behavioural hypnotherapy, or clinical hypnosis combined with elements of cognitive behavioural therapy<ref name="Robertson_2012">{{cite book| author=Robertson, D| title=The Practice of Cognitive-Behavioural Hypnotherapy: A Manual for Evidence-Based Clinical Hypnosis| year=2012| publisher=Karnac| location=London| isbn=978-1-85575-530-7| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=um6_7kEszusC| access-date=7 November 2015| archive-date=2 July 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702163310/https://books.google.com/books?id=um6_7kEszusC| url-status=live}}</ref>

* [[Milton H. Erickson#Ericksonian approaches|Ericksonian hypnotherapy]]

* Fears and [[phobia]]<ref>{{cite journal |title=Hypnosis with a blind 55-year-old female with dental phobia requiring periodontal treatment and extraction | vauthors = Gow MA |year=2006 |journal=Contemporary Hypnosis |volume=23 |pages=92–100 |issue=2 |doi=10.1002/ch.313}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.lcch.co.uk/hypnosisarticles/case_phobia.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050629025402/http://www.lcch.co.uk/hypnosisarticles/case_phobia.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 June 2005 | vauthors = Nicholson J |title=Hypnotherapy – Case History – Phobia |journal=London College of Clinical Hypnosis}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.stichtingemetofobie.nl/pdf/a_vomiting_phobia_overcome_by_one_session_of_flooding_with_hypnosis.pdf |vauthors=Wijesnghe B |year=1974 |title=A vomiting phobia overcome by one session of flooding with hypnosis |journal=Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry |volume=5 |pages=169–70 |doi=10.1016/0005-7916(74)90107-4 |issue=2 |access-date=5 May 2013 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308134532/http://www.stichtingemetofobie.nl/pdf/a_vomiting_phobia_overcome_by_one_session_of_flooding_with_hypnosis.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Deyoub PL, Epstein SJ | title = Short-term hypnotherapy for the treatment of flight phobia: a case report | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 251–54 | date = April 1977 | pmid = 879063 | doi = 10.1080/00029157.1977.10403885}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Hypnosis+in+the+treatment+of+social+phobia.-a0229529946 |title=Hypnosis in the treatment of social phobia |last=Rogers |first=Janet |name-list-style=vanc |date=May 2008 |journal=Australian Journal of Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis |volume=36 |pages=64–68 |issue=1 |access-date=5 May 2013 |archive-date=30 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430213739/https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Hypnosis+in+the+treatment+of+social+phobia.-a0229529946 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Line 220 ⟶ 119:

==== Menopause ====

There is evidence supporting the use of hypnotherapy in the treatment of [[menopause]] related symptoms, including [[hot flash]]es.~~<ref name="ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"/>~~<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hickey|first1=Martha|last2=Szabo|first2=Rebecca A.|last3=Hunter|first3=Myra S.|date=2017-11-23|title=Non-hormonal treatments for menopausal symptoms|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/359/bmj.j5101|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=359|pages=j5101|doi=10.1136/bmj.j5101|issn=0959-8138|pmid=29170264|s2cid=46856968|access-date=7 September 2021|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907105558/https://www.bmj.com/content/359/bmj.j5101|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[North American Menopause Society]] recommends hypnotherapy for the nonhormonal management of menopause-associated [[vasomotor]] symptoms, giving it the highest level of evidence.<ref name="auto"/>

==== Irritable bowel syndrome ====

Line 228 ⟶ 127:

A number of studies show that hypnosis can reduce the pain experienced during burn-wound [[debridement]],<ref name="Patterson">{{cite journal | vauthors = Patterson DR, Questad KA, de Lateur BJ | title = Hypnotherapy as an adjunct to narcotic analgesia for the treatment of pain for burn debridement | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 156–63 | date = January 1989 | pmid = 2563925 | doi = 10.1080/00029157.1989.10402884}}</ref> bone marrow aspirations, and [[childbirth]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.papelesdelpsicologo.es/english/1699.pdf | vauthors = Mendoza ME, Capafons A |year=2009 |title=Efficacy of clinical hypnosis: A summary of its empirical evidence |journal=Papeles del Psicólogo |volume=30 |pages=98–116 |issue=2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130108013040/http://www.papelesdelpsicologo.es/english/1699.pdf |archive-date=8 January 2013}}</ref><ref name="Ewin">{{cite journal |url=http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4523306/Ewin-Use_hypnosis_treatment_burn_patients.pdf |title=The use of hypnosis in the treatment of burn patients |journal=International Handbook of Clinical Hypnosis |vauthors=Ewin DM |year=2001 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=274–83 |pmid=1289964 |access-date=16 June 2013 |archive-date=5 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120705212147/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4523306/Ewin-Use_hypnosis_treatment_burn_patients.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ''International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis'' found that hypnosis relieved the pain of 75% of 933 subjects participating in 27 different experiments.<ref name="Nash">Nash, Michael R. "[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-truth-and-the-hype-of-2001-07 The Truth and the Hype of Hypnosis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101104111/http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-truth-and-the-hype-of-2001-07 |date=1 November 2013 }}". [[Scientific American]]: July 2001</ref>

Hypnosis is effective in decreasing the fear of [[Treatment of cancer|cancer treatment]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180619122514.htm|title=Hypnosis may help reduce fear of cancer treatment in children: Hypnosis could help to reduce the fear of medical procedures in children and young people with cancer.|work=ScienceDaily|access-date=22 June 2018|language=en|archive-date=17 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417183052/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/06/180619122514.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> reducing pain from<ref name="Butler">{{cite journal | vauthors = Butler B | title = The use of hypnosis in the care of the cancer patient | journal = Cancer | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–14 | date = January 1954 | pmid = 13126897 | doi = 10.1002/1097-0142(195401)7:1<1::AID-CNCR2820070103>3.0.CO;2-0 | doi-access = free}}</ref> and coping with cancer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4431493/Peynovska-Efficacy_hypnotherapy_supplement_therapy_cancer.pdf |vauthors=Peynovska R, Fisher J, Oliver D, Matthew VM |year=2003 |title=Efficacy of hypnotherapy as a supplement therapy in cancer intervention |work=Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of The Royal College of Psychiatrists, 30 June – 3 July 2003 |access-date=5 May 2013 |archive-date=6 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120706012254/http://bscw.rediris.es/pub/bscw.cgi/d4431493/Peynovska-Efficacy_hypnotherapy_supplement_therapy_cancer.pdf |url-status=dead}}</ref> and other chronic conditions.<ref name="Nash"/> Nausea and other symptoms related to incurable diseases may also be managed with hypnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Spiegel D, Moore R | title = Imagery and hypnosis in the treatment of cancer patients | journal = Oncology | volume = 11 | issue = 8 | pages = 1179–89; discussion 1189–95 | date = August 1997 | pmid = 9268979}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Garrow D, Egede LE | title = National patterns and correlates of complementary and alternative medicine use in adults with diabetes | journal = Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine | volume = 12 | issue = 9 | pages = 895–902 | date = November 2006 | pmid = 17109581 | doi = 10.1089/acm.2006.12.895}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mascott C | title = Hypnotherapy. A complementary therapy with broad applications | journal = Diabetes Self-Management | volume = 21 | issue = 5 | pages = 15–18 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15586907}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kwekkeboom KL, Gretarsdottir E | title = Systematic review of relaxation interventions for pain | journal = Journal of Nursing Scholarship | volume = 38 | issue = 3 | pages = 269–77 | year = 2006 | pmid = 17044345 | doi = 10.1111/j.1547-5069.2006.00113.x}}</ref> Some practitioners have claimed hypnosis might help boost the immune system of people with cancer. However, according to the [[American Cancer Society]], "available scientific evidence does not support the idea that hypnosis can influence the development or progression of cancer."<ref>{{cite web

|url=http://www.cancer.org/treatment/treatmentsandsideeffects/complementaryandalternativemedicine/mindbodyandspirit/hypnosis

|title=Hypnosis

Line 246 ⟶ 145:

==== Other uses of hypnotherapy====

The success rate for habit control is varied. A meta-study researching hypnosis as a quit-smoking tool found it had a 20 to 30 percent success rate,<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/28/health/28REAL.html| title=The Claim: Hypnosis Can Help You Stop Smoking| newspaper=The New York Times| date=28 September 2004| last1=O'Connor| first1=Anahad| access-date=19 February 2017| archive-date=28 May 2015| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528070140/http://www.nytimes.com/2004/09/28/health/28REAL.html| url-status=live}}</ref>{{Medical citation needed|date=September 2021}} while a 2007 study of patients hospitalised for cardiac and pulmonary ailments found that smokers who used hypnosis to quit smoking doubled their chances of success.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071022124741.htm |title=Hypnotherapy for Smoking Cessation Sees Strong Results |date=24 October 2007 |website=ScienceDaily |access-date=1 October 2011 |archive-date=2 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110902135806/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/10/071022124741.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}} In 2019, a Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of benefit of hypnosis in smoking cessation, and suggested if there is, it is small at best.<ref name="Barnes, J. 2019"/>

In 2019, a Cochrane review was unable to find evidence of benefit of hypnosis in smoking cessation, and suggested if there is, it is small at best.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Barnes|first1=Joanne|last2=McRobbie|first2=Hayden|last3=Dong|first3=Christine Y|last4=Walker|first4=Natalie|last5=Hartmann-Boyce|first5=Jamie|date=2019-06-14|editor-last=Cochrane Tobacco Addiction Group|title=Hypnotherapy for smoking cessation|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|volume=2019|issue=6|pages=CD001008|language=en|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001008.pub3|pmc=6568235|pmid=31198991}}</ref>

Hypnosis may be useful as an adjunct therapy for weight loss. A 1996 meta-analysis studying hypnosis combined with cognitive behavioural therapy found that people using both treatments lost more weight than people using cognitive behavioural therapy alone.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The [[virtual gastric band]] procedure mixes hypnosis with [[hypnopedia]]. The hypnosis instructs the stomach that it is smaller than it really is, and hypnopedia reinforces alimentary habits. A 2016 pilot study found that there was no significant difference in effectiveness between VGB hypnotherapy and relaxation hypnotherapy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Greetham S, Goodwin S, Wells L, Whitham C, Jones H, Rigby A, Sathyapalan T, Reid M, Atkin S | title = Pilot Investigation of a Virtual Gastric Band Hypnotherapy Intervention | journal = The International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis | volume = 64 | issue = 4 | pages = 419–33 | date = 1 October 2016 | pmid = 27585726 | doi = 10.1080/00207144.2016.1209037 | s2cid = 22511575 | url = https://hull-repository.worktribe.com/output/435222 | access-date = 21 July 2021 | archive-date = 9 October 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211009202917/https://hull-repository.worktribe.com/output/435222 | url-status = live }}</ref>

American psychiatric nurses, in most medical facilities, are allowed to administer hypnosis to patients in order to relieve symptoms such as anxiety, arousal, negative behaviours, uncontrollable behaviour, and to improve self-esteem and confidence. This is permitted only when they have been completely trained about their clinical side effects and while under supervision when administering it.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S1078-3903(03)00226-X|author=Valente, M.S.|year=2003|title=Hypnosis: A Useful Strategy for Symptom Relief|journal=Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association|volume= 9|issue=5|pages=163–66|s2cid=146512348}}</ref>

Line 267 ⟶ 167:

The study concluded that there are no reliable accounts of its effective use by an intelligence service in history.<ref name="Hypnosis in Intelligence"/>

Research into hypnosis in military applications is further verified by the [[Project MKUltra]] experiments, also conducted by the [[CIA]].<ref>[http://community.theblackvault.com/articles/entry/CIA-MKULTRA-Collection- MKULTRA Program], ''The Black Vault'', 2008 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323173042/http://community.theblackvault.com/articles/entry/CIA-MKULTRA-Collection- |date=23 March 2012}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}} According to Congressional testimony,<ref name="Congressional Hearing by MKULTRA">[http://www.theblackvault.com/documents/mindcontrol/hearing.pdf Congressional Hearing by MKULTRA] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618041653/http://www.theblackvault.com/documents/mindcontrol/hearing.pdf |date=18 June 2008 }}, ''The Black Vault''</ref> the CIA experimented with utilising [[LSD]] and hypnosis for [[Brainwashing|mind control]]. Many of these programs were done domestically and on participants who were not informed of the study's purposes or that they would be given drugs.<ref name="Congressional Hearing by MKULTRA"/>

=== Self-hypnosis ===

Line 277 ⟶ 177:

=== Stage hypnosis ===

Stage hypnosis is a form of entertainment, traditionally employed in a club or theatre before an audience. Due to stage hypnotists' showmanship, many people believe that hypnosis is a form of mind control. Stage hypnotists typically attempt to hypnotise the entire audience and then select individuals who are "under" to come up on stage and perform embarrassing acts, while the audience watches. However, the effects of stage hypnosis are probably due to a combination of psychological factors, participant selection, suggestibility, physical manipulation, stagecraft, and trickery.<ref>{{cite book | last = Yapko | first = Michael | author-link = Michael D. Yapko | title = Trancework: An introduction to the practice of Clinical Hypnosis | location = New York | publisher = Brunner/Mazel | year = 1990 | page = 28}}</ref> The desire to be the centre of attention, having an excuse to violate their own fear suppressors, and the pressure to please are thought to convince subjects to "play along".<ref name="Wagstaff">{{cite book |last=Wagstaff |first=Graham F. | name-list-style = vanc |year=1981 |title=Hypnosis, Compliance and Belief |publisher=St. Martin's Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-312-40157-3}}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}}</ref> Books by stage hypnotists sometimes explicitly describe the use of deception in their acts; for example, [[Ormond McGill]]'s ''New Encyclopedia of Stage ~~Hypnosis~~Hypnotism'' describes an entire "fake hypnosis" act that depends upon the use of private whispers throughout.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

=== Music ===

Line 292 ⟶ 192:

In 1951, Palle Hardrup shot and killed two people during a botched robbery in [[Copenhagen]] - see [[Hypnosis murders]]. Hardrup claimed that his friend and former cellmate Bjørn Schouw Nielsen had hypnotised him to commit the robbery, inadvertently causing the deaths. Both were sentenced to jail time.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martinsen |first1=Poul |title=Hypnosemorderen – dobbeltmennesket Palle Hardrup |date=2012 |publisher=Gyldendal |isbn=978-87-02-12200-8 |language=da}}</ref>

In 2011, a Russian "evil hypnotist" was suspected of tricking customers in banks around [[Stavropol]] into giving away thousands of pounds' worth of money. According to the local police, he would approach them and make them withdraw all of the money from their bank accounts, which they would then freely give to the man.<ref>[http://metro.co.uk/2011/04/13/hypnotist-being-hunted-in-russia-for-stealing-cash-from-bank-customers-651249/ Hypnotist being hunted in Russia for stealing cash from bank customers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110023647/http://metro.co.uk/2011/04/13/hypnotist-being-hunted-in-russia-for-stealing-cash-from-bank-customers-651249/ |date=10 January 2017 }}, ''Metro''</ref> A similar incident was reported in London in 2014, where a video seemingly showed a robber hypnotising a shopkeeper before robbing him. The victim did nothing to stop the robber from looting his pockets and taking his cash, only calling out the thief when he was already getting away.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20141205115854/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11274801/Hypnotist-thief-puts-shopkeeper-in-trance-before-robbing-him.html Hypnotist thief puts shopkeeper in trance before robbing him], ''The Telegraph''</ref><ref>[https://www.standard.co.uk/news/crime/moment-hypnotist-put-shopkeeper-in-a-trance-before-stealing-hundreds-of-pounds-in-cash-9904960.html Shopkeeper 'placed in trance by hypnotist' during theft in north London] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202132135/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/crime/moment-hypnotist-put-shopkeeper-in-a-trance-before-stealing-hundreds-of-pounds-in-cash-9904960.html |date=2 December 2017 }}, ''The Standard''</ref>

In 2013, the then-40-year-old amateur hypnotist Timothy Porter attempted to sexually abuse his female weight-loss client. She reported awaking from a trance and finding him behind her with his pants down, telling her to touch herself. He was subsequently called to court and included on the sex offender list.<ref>[https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/hypnotist-timothy-porter-made-sex-2234728 Evil hypnotist made me into his sex slave: He admits vile acts while client was in trance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107023322/http://www.mirror.co.uk/news/uk-news/hypnotist-timothy-porter-made-sex-2234728 |date=7 November 2017 }}, ''Mirror''</ref> In 2015, Gary Naraido, then 52, was sentenced to 10 years in prison for several hypnosis-related sexual abuse charges. Besides the primary charge by a 22-year-old woman who he sexually abused in a hotel under the guise of a free therapy session, he also admitted to having sexually assaulted a 14-year-old girl.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11897562/Hypnotist-jailed-for-ten-years-after-sexually-assaulting-woman-under-his-spell.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/11897562/Hypnotist-jailed-for-ten-years-after-sexually-assaulting-woman-under-his-spell.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Hypnotist jailed for ten years after sexually assaulting woman under his spell|journal=Daily Telegraph|last=Clarke-Billings|first=Lucy| name-list-style = vanc |date=28 September 2015|access-date=1 November 2017|language=en-GB|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In December 2018, a Brazilian [[mediumship|medium]] named [[João Teixeira de Faria]] (also known as "João de Deus"), famous for performing Spiritual Surgeries through hypnosis techniques, was accused of sexual abuse by 12 women.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/world/americas/brazil-healer-john-of-god.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220103/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/11/world/americas/brazil-healer-john-of-god.html |archive-date=2022-01-03 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Celebrity Healer in Brazil Is Accused of Sexually Abusing Followers|last=Darlington|first=Shasta| name-list-style = vanc |date=11 December 2018|work=The New York Times|access-date=12 December 2018|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/internacional/en/brazil/2018/12/twelve-women-accuse-medium-john-of-god-of-sexual-abuse.shtml| title=Twelve Women Accuse Medium John of God of Sexual Abuse| date=9 December 2018| access-date=14 December 2018| archive-date=11 December 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211065435/https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/internacional/en/brazil/2018/12/twelve-women-accuse-medium-john-of-god-of-sexual-abuse.shtml| url-status=live}}</ref> In 2016 an Ohio lawyer was sentenced to 12 years of prison after hypnotizing a dozen different clients into committing sexual acts under the guise of a mindfulness exercise.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://time.com/4571750/ohio-lawyer-hynotize-women/|title=Lawyer Who Hypnotized Women For His Own Sexual Pleasure Sentenced to Prison|magazine=Time|language=en|access-date=30 December 2019}}</ref>

Line 357 ⟶ 255:

Barber, Spanos, and Chaves (1974) proposed a nonstate "cognitive-behavioural" theory of hypnosis, similar in some respects to Sarbin's social role-taking theory and building upon the earlier research of Barber. On this model, hypnosis is explained as an extension of ordinary psychological processes like imagination, relaxation, expectation, social compliance, etc. In particular, Barber argued that responses to hypnotic suggestions were mediated by a "positive cognitive set" consisting of positive expectations, attitudes, and motivation. Daniel Araoz subsequently coined the acronym "TEAM" to symbolise the subject's orientation to hypnosis in terms of "trust", "expectation", "attitude", and "motivation".<ref name="Barber, Spanos 1974"/>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2021}}

Barber et al. noted that similar factors appeared to mediate the response both to hypnotism and to cognitive behavioural therapy, in particular systematic desensitisation.<ref name="Barber, Spanos 1974"/> Hence, research and clinical practice inspired by their interpretation has led to growing interest in the relationship between hypnotherapy and cognitive behavioural therapy.<ref name="Chapman">{{cite book|author=Robin A. Chapman|title=The clinical use of hypnosis in cognitive behavior therapy: a practitioner's casebook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u6UpFP2fIqcC|access-date=30 October 2011|year=2006|publisher=Springer Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8261-2884-3|archive-date=2 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702163307/https://books.google.com/books?id=u6UpFP2fIqcC|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|105}}<ref name="Bolocofsky"/>

=== Information theory ===

Line 370 ⟶ 268:

The [[American Society of Clinical Hypnosis]] (ASCH) is unique among organisations for professionals using hypnosis because members must be licensed healthcare workers with graduate degrees. As an interdisciplinary organisation, ASCH not only provides a classroom to teach professionals how to use hypnosis as a tool in their practice, it provides professionals with a community of experts from different disciplines. The ASCH's missions statement is to provide and encourage education programs to further, in every ethical way, the knowledge, understanding, and application of hypnosis in health care; to encourage research and scientific publication in the field of hypnosis; to promote the further recognition and acceptance of hypnosis as an important tool in clinical health care and focus for scientific research; to cooperate with other professional societies that share mutual goals, ethics and interests; and to provide a professional community for those clinicians and researchers who use hypnosis in their work. The ASCH also publishes the ''[[American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis]]''.

== History ==

== See also ==

Line 399 ⟶ 300:

* [[Ainslie Meares]]

* [[Dylan Morgan]]

* [[Michel Weber]]<ref>[[Michel Weber]] is working on a Whiteheadian interpretation of hypnotic phenomena: see his « [https://www.academia.edu/869316/_Hypnosis_Panpsychism_in_Action_2008_ Hypnosis: Panpsychism in Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101034018/http://www.academia.edu/869316/_Hypnosis_Panpsychism_in_Action_2008_ |date=1 January 2016 }} », in Michel Weber and William Desmond, Jr. (eds.), ''[https://www.academia.edu/6359521/Michel_Weber_and_Will_Desmond_eds._Handbook_of_Whiteheadian_Process_Thought_2008 Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211009213445/https://www.academia.edu/6359521/Michel_Weber_and_Will_Desmond_eds._Handbook_of_Whiteheadian_Process_Thought_2008 |date=9 October 2021 }}'', Frankfurt / Lancaster, ontos verlag, Process Thought X1 & X2, 2008, I, pp. 15–38, 395–414; cf. « [https://www.academia.edu/5679705/_Syntonie_ou_agencement_ethnopsychiatrique_2013_ Syntonie ou agencement ethnopsychiatrique ?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308143836/https://www.academia.edu/5679705/_Syntonie_ou_agencement_ethnopsychiatrique_2013_ |date=8 March 2021 }} », Michel Weber et Vincent Berne (sous la direction de), ''[https://www.academia.edu/5562658/Michel_Weber_et_Vincent_Berne_sous_la_direction_de_Chromatikon_IX._Annales_de_la_philosophie_en_proc%C3%A8s_Yearbook_of_Philosophy_in_Process_2013 Chromatikon IX. Annales de la philosophie en procès – Yearbook of Philosophy in Process] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403220501/https://www.academia.edu/5562658/Michel_Weber_et_Vincent_Berne_sous_la_direction_de_Chromatikon_IX._Annales_de_la_philosophie_en_proc%C3%A8s_Yearbook_of_Philosophy_in_Process_2013 |date=3 April 2020 }}'', Les Editions Chromatika, 2013, pp. 55–68.</ref>

* [[Michael D. Yapko]]