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Line 323: While personal humiliation does not turn out to be a motivation for those attempting to kill civilians, the perception that others with whom one feels a common bond are being humiliated can be a powerful driver for action. "Small-group dynamics involving friends and family that form the [[diaspora]] cell of [[fraternity|brotherhood]] and [[camaraderie]] on which the rising tide of martyrdom actions is based".<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://jeannicod.ccsd.cnrs.fr/ijn_00000676/document |title=The Moral Logic and Growth of Suicide Terrorism |last1=Atran |first1=Scott |pages=138, 144 |journal=The Washington Quarterly, Center for Strategic and Int'l Studies, MIT |year= 2006 |volume= 29 |access-date=26 August 2019 }}</ref> Terrorists, according to Atran, are social beings influenced by social connections and values. Rather than dying "for a cause", they might be said to have died "for each other".<ref name="burke">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2010/oct/24/scott-atran-talking-to-the-enemy-review|title=Talking to the Enemy by Scott Atran – [book] review|date=23 October 2010|work=The Observer|last1=Burke|first1=Jason|access-date=19 October 2014}}</ref> In a 2011 doctoral thesis, anthropologist Kyle R. Gibson reviewed three studies documenting 1,208 suicide attacks from 1981 to 2007 and found that countries with higher [[polygyny]] rates correlated with greater production of [[Suicide attack#Suicide terrorism|suicide terrorists]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Harmon|first1=Vanessa|first2=Edin|last2=Mujkic|first3=Catherine|last3=Kaukinen|first4=Henriikka|last4=Weir|title=Causes & Explanations of Suicide Terrorism: A Systematic Review|year=2018|journal=Homeland Security Affairs|publisher=[[Center for Homeland Defense and Security|NPS Center for Homeland Defense and Security]]|volume=25|url=https://www.hsaj.org/articles/14749}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Gibson|first=Kyle R.|title=The Roles of Operational Sex Ratio and Young-Old Ratio in Producing Suicide Attackers|year=2011|publisher=[[University of Utah]]|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260059007}}</ref> Political scientist [[Robert Pape]] has found that among Islamic suicide terrorists, 97 percent were unmarried and 84 percent were male (or if excluding the [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]], 91 percent male),<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pape|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Pape|title=The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism|year=2003|journal=[[American Political Science Review]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|volume=97|issue=3|pages=343–361|doi=10.1017/S000305540300073X|doi-broken-date=30 August 2024 |hdl=1811/31746|s2cid=1019730|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/journalism/stille/Politics%20Fall%202007/readings%20weeks%206-7/Strategic%20Logic%20of%20Suicide%20Missions.pdf|hdl-access=free}}</ref> while a study conducted by the [[United States Armed Forces|U.S. military]] in [[Iraq]] in 2008 found that suicide bombers were almost always single men without children aged 18 to 30 (with a mean age of 22), and were typically students or employed in [[Blue-collar worker|blue-collar occupations]].<ref>{{cite news|title=U.S. study draws portrait of Iraq bombers|date=15 March 2008|work=[[USA Today]]|publisher=[[Gannett]]|url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2008-03-15-iraq-study_N.htm|access-date=27 February 2020}}</ref> In addition to noting that countries where polygyny is widely practiced tend to have higher [[List of countries by intentional homicide rate|homicide rates]] and [[Rape statistics|rates of rape]], political scientists [[Valerie M. Hudson]] and Bradley Thayer have argued that because [[Polygyny in Islam|Islam is the only major religious tradition where polygyny is still largely condoned]], the higher degrees of marital inequality in [[Muslim world|Islamic countries]] than most of the world causes them to have larger populations susceptible to suicide terrorism, and that [[Houri|promises of harems of virgins]] for [[Shahid|martyrdom]] serves as a mechanism to mitigate [[In-group and out-group|in-group]] conflict within Islamic countries between alpha and non-alpha males by bringing esteem to the latter's families and redirecting their violence towards out-groups.<ref name="Hudson & Thayer 2010">{{cite journal|last1=Hudson|first1=Valerie M.|author-link1=Valerie M. Hudson|last2=Thayer|first2=Bradley|title=Sex and the Shaheed: Insights from the Life Sciences on Islamic Suicide Terrorism|year=2010|journal=[[International Security (journal)|International Security]]|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|volume=34|issue=4|pages=48–53|jstor=40784561}}</ref> Along with his research on the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|Tamil Tigers]], Scott Atran found that [[State of Palestine|Palestinian]] terrorist groups (such as [[Hamas]]) provide monthly [[stipend]]s, [[Lump sum|lump-sum payments]], and massive prestige to the families of suicide terrorists.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Atran|first=Scott|author-link=Scott Atran|year=2003|title=Genesis of Suicide Terrorism|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|publisher=[[American Association for the Advancement of Science]]|volume=299|issue=5612|pages=1534–1539|doi=10.1126/science.1078854|pmid=12624256 |bibcode=2003Sci...299.1534A |s2cid=12114032 |url=https://jeannicod.ccsd.cnrs.fr/ijn_00509568/file/genesis_of_Suicide_terrorism.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Atran|first=Scott|year=2006|title=The moral logic and growth of suicide terrorism|journal=[[The Washington Quarterly]]|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|volume=29|issue=2|pages=127–147|doi=10.1162/wash.2006.29.2.127|s2cid=154382700 |url=https://jeannicod.ccsd.cnrs.fr/ijn_00000676/file/TWQ06spring_atran.pdf }}</ref> Citing Atran and other anthropological research showing that 99 percent of Palestinian suicide terrorists are male, that 86 percent are unmarried, and that 81 percent have at least six siblings (larger than the average Palestinian family size), cognitive scientist [[Steven Pinker]] argues in ''[[The Better Angels of Our Nature]]'' (2011) that because the families of men in the [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]] often cannot afford [[bride price]]s and that many potential brides end up in polygynous marriages, the financial compensation of an act of suicide terrorism can buy enough brides for a man's brothers to have children to make the [[Altruism (biology)|self-sacrifice]] pay off in terms of [[kin selection]] and [[Fitness (biology)|biological fitness]] (with Pinker also citing a famous quotation attributed to evolutionary biologist [[J. B. S. Haldane]] when Haldane quipped that he would not sacrifice his life for his brother but would for "two brothers or eight cousins").<ref>{{cite book|last=Pinker|first=Steven|author-link=Steven Pinker|year=2011|title=The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined|title-link=The Better Angels of Our Nature|publisher=[[Penguin Group]]|place=New York|pages=353–358|isbn=978-0143122012}}</ref> Line 734: ===== Attacks in the Netherlands ===== * [[Theo van Gogh (film director)|'''Murder of Theo van Gogh''']] on 2 November 2004. Dutch filmmaker and political activist Theo van Gogh was assassinated by [[Mohammed Bouyeri]], a second-generation Moroccan-Dutchman, [[Islamist]] and member of the [[Hofstad Network]].{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} * '''[[2018 Amsterdam stabbing attack]]''': On 31 August 2018, a man randomly attacked two people in [[Amsterdam Centraal station]] with a blade weapon – both victims were American-[[Demographics of Eritrea|Eritrean]] tourists who were injured.<ref>{{cite news|last=Rosman|first=Cyril|date=11 December 2018|title=Toestand van slachtoffer 'terreursteker' Amsterdam CS is 'catastrofaal'|language=nl|newspaper=[[Algemeen Dagblad]]|url=https://www.ad.nl/binnenland/toestand-van-slachtof-fer-terreur-ste-ker-amsterdam-cs-is-catastrofaal~a2a13314/|access-date=13 November 2019}}</ref> The attacker was a 19-year-old [[Afghans in the Netherlands|from Afghanistan]] under the name Jawad S. who held a German [[residency permit]] and was denied asylum there.<ref>{{cite web|title=Knivman i Amsterdam ville hämnas skymfandet av islam|url=https://svenska.yle.fi/artikel/2018/09/03/knivman-i-amsterdam-ville-hamnas-skymfandet-av-islam|access-date=19 January 2019|website=svenska.yle.fi|date=3 September 2018 |language=sv-FI}}</ref> The suspect was aggrieved at the Netherlands for [[Blasphemy and Islam|insulting Islam]], directly referring to politician [[Geert Wilders]].<ref>{{cite news|date=5 September 2018|title=Jihadist knifeman shot in nine seconds|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45419445|access-date=7 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Suspect in stabbing|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2018-09-03/suspect-in-stabbing-of-americans-believes-dutch-insult-islam|website=usnews.com}}</ref> * '''[[Utrecht tram shooting]]''': On 18 March 2019, Gökmen Tanis carried out a shooting attack against tram passengers in Utrecht, killing four civilians and wounding six others. Tanis was arrested and convicted of murder with terrorist intent and sentenced to life in prison. He expressed support for Islamic extremism.<ref name="life imprisonment">{{Cite news|date=20 March 2020|title=Gökmen T. krijgt levenslang voor aanslag in Utrechtse tram|language=nl-NL|work=nu.nl|url=https://www.nu.nl/schietpartij-utrecht/6039024/gokmen-t-krijgt-levenslang-voor-aanslag-in-utrechtse-tram.html|access-date=20 March 2020}}</ref> | |||