Israel: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $53,372<ref name="IMFWEO.IL" />

| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 18th

| ~~Gini~~Gini_change = increase ~~= 34.8~~

| Gini = 37.9

| Gini_ref = <ref name=oecd group=fn/><ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.oecd.org/chart/60V4 |title=Income inequality |website=OECD Data |publisher=OECD |access-date=29 June 2020 |archive-date=30 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630002540/https://data.oecd.org/chart/60V4 |url-status=live }}</ref>

| Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/gini-index-coefficient-distribution-of-family-income/country-comparison/ |title=Gini Index coefficient|publisher=[[The World Factbook]]|access-date=24 September 2024|url-status=live}}</ref>

| Gini_year = ~~2018~~2021

| HDI_year = 2022

| HDI = 0.915

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| footnotes = {{notelist}}

}}

'''Israel''',{{efn|group=fn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɪ|z|r|i|.|ə|l|,_|-|r|eɪ|-}}; {{lang-he|יִשְׂרָאֵל}} {{Transliteration|he|Yīsrāʾēl}} {{IPA-|he|jisʁaˈʔel|}}; {{lang-ar|إِسْرَائِيل}} {{Transliteration|ar|ʾIsrāʾīl}}}} officially the '''State of Israel''',{{efn|group=fn|{{lang-he|מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל}} {{transliteration|he|Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl}} {{IPA-|he|mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel|}}; {{lang-ar|دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل}} {{transliteration|ar|Dawlat Isrāʾīl}}}} is a country in the [[Southern Levant]] region of [[West Asia]]. It is [[Borders of Israel|bordered]] by [[Lebanon]] and [[Syria]] to the north, the [[West Bank]] and [[Jordan]] to the east, the [[Gaza Strip]] and [[Egypt]] to the southwest, and the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the west.<ref>{{cite web |date=12 June 2022 |title=When will be the right time for Israel to define its borders? – analysis |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-709240 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125202149/https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-709240 |archive-date=25 January 2024 |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com}}</ref> The country also has a small coastline on the [[Red Sea]] at its southernmost point, and part of the [[Dead Sea]] lies along its eastern border. ~~Israel's proclaimed capital~~[[Jerusalem]] is in [[Status of Jerusalem|controversially proclaimed]] by Israel to be its capital,<ref>Akram, Susan M., Michael Dumper, Michael Lynk, and Iain Scobbie, eds. 2010. ''International Law and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A Rights-Based Approach to Middle East Peace''. Routledge. p. 119: "UN General Assembly Resolution 181 recommended the creation of an international zone, or corpus separatum, in Jerusalem to be administered by the UN for a 10-year period, after which there would be a referendum to determine its future. This approach applies equally to West and East Jerusalem and is not affected by the occupation of East Jerusalem in 1967. To a large extent it is this approach that still guides the diplomatic behaviour of states and thus has greater force in international law."</ref> while [[Tel Aviv]] is the country's [[Gush Dan|largest urban area]] and [[Economy of Israel|economic center]].

Israel is located in a region known to [[Jews]] as the [[Land of Israel]], synonymous with the [[Palestine (region)|Palestine region]], the [[Holy Land]], and [[Canaan]]. In antiquity, it was home to the [[Canaan|Canaanite civilization]] followed by the [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|kingdoms of Israel and Judah]]. Situated at a [[Levantine corridor|continental crossroad]], the region experienced [[Demographic history of Palestine (region)|demographic changes]] under the rule of [[History of Israel|various empires]] from the [[Roman Empire|Romans]] to the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]].<ref name="auto">{{cite book |last=Gil |first=Moshe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M0wUKoMJeccC&dq=history+of+palestine+two+people&pg=PR13 |title=A History of Palestine, 634-1099 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-521-59984-9 |pages=14 |access-date=17 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240517102802/https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=M0wUKoMJeccC&oi=fnd&pg=PR13&dq=history+of+palestine+two+people&ots=CMV1-8kJav&sig=C1Eh2oIUdicDWgg_Clo6yJgumUQ#v=onepage&q=history%20of%20palestine%20two%20people&f=false |archive-date=17 May 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Antisemitism in Europe#19th and early 20th century|European antisemitism]] in the late 19th century galvanized [[Zionism]], which sought a [[Homeland for the Jewish people|Jewish homeland]] in Palestine and gained [[Balfour Declaration|British support]]. After [[World War I]], Britain occupied the region and established [[Mandatory Palestine]] in 1920. Increased [[Aliyah|Jewish immigration]] in the leadup to the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]] and [[British foreign policy in the Middle East#Mandate for Palestine|British colonial policy]] led to [[Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine|intercommunal conflict]] between Jews and [[Arabs]],<ref>{{cite book |~~author~~last = Morris | first = [[Benny ~~Morris~~|~~Morris,~~author-link = Benny]] Morris|title= Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001 |publisher= Knopf |year= 1999 |edition= reprint |isbn= 9780679744757 |pages= |quote= The fear of territorial displacement and dispossession was to be the chief motor of Arab antagonism to Zionism down to 1948 (and indeed after 1967 as well). |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=746mQgAACAAJ |access-date= 22 March 2024 |archive-date= 22 March 2024 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240322131219/https://books.google.com/books?id=746mQgAACAAJ |url-status= live }} Also quoted, among many, by Mark M. Ayyash (2019). ''Hermeneutics of Violence: A Four-Dimensional Conception''. University of Toronto Press, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=W1G_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 195] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240322131220/https://books.google.com/books?id=W1G_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA195 |date=22 March 2024 }}, {{ISBN| 1487505868}}. Accessed 22 March 2024.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fildis |first1=Ayse |last2=Nisanci |first2=Ensar |title=British Colonial Policy "Divide and Rule": Fanning Arab Rivalry in Palestine |year=2019 |journal=International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies |volume=6 |issue=1 |publisher=UTM Press |url=https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/78420814/ea601a07a2310f41e37ea266a47b38107202-libre.pdf?1641751843=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DBritish_Colonial_Policy_Divide_and_Rule.pdf&Expires=1715344527&Signature=UEfPzsmbLIHNW7Sd0jLxe4OpYUu4sPt5cIaU2beASuCt0BXqpfOQmcXAcR9EAPzkenh~ohMRrZlUREfMTTfqEosnMw8oqlVa2Ap6HVteACMhsC0VpH~MUmjcYs8f8rQUrWjZTnMuKwhEtiRQ92Md~PThKvq6IbAds05mX-cJzPamGLZ7fpx8xA3ejpYDXiG1uYE7Ks550xBeDWLCCPkfuOUJXMTbmJAucKnXRZnDL78EuDeQx0CNpSWdujVlcd82klFyLverjL5AAJs5AH2eHNVpXzym0fPdbY2YJWz5sgMYZOC9oN09cDXB007r7qRj2nFSL3Zs13Un0i~~1~pwbg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |access-date=10 May 2024 |archive-date=10 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240510121206/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/78420814/ea601a07a2310f41e37ea266a47b38107202-libre.pdf?1641751843=&response-content-disposition=inline&%20filename=British_Colonial_Policy_Divide_and_Rule.pdf&Expires=1715344527&Signature=UEfPzsmbLIHNW7Sd0jLxe4OpYUu4sPt5cIaU2beASuCt0BXqpfOQmcXAcR9EAPzkenh~ohMRrZlUREfMTTfqEosnMw8oqlVa2Ap6HVteACMhsC0VpH~MUmjcYs8f8rQUrWjZTnMuKwhEtiRQ92Md~PThKvq6IbAds05mX-cJzPamGLZ7fpx8xA3ejpYDXiG1uYE7Ks550xBeDWLCCPkfuOUJXMTbmJAucKnXRZnDL78EuDeQx0CNpSWdujVlcd82klFyLverjL5AAJs5AH2eHNVpXzym0fPdbY2YJWz5sgMYZOC9oN09cDXB007r7qRj2nFSL3Zs13Un0i~~1~pwbg__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA |url-status=live }}</ref> which escalated into a [[1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]] in 1947 after the UN [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|proposed partitioning]] the land between them.

The State of Israel [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declared its establishment]] on 14 May 1948. The armies of neighboring Arab states invaded the area of the former Mandate the next day, beginning the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|First Arab–Israeli War]]. Subsequent [[1949 Armistice Agreements|armistice agreements]] established Israeli control over [[Green Line (Israel)|77 percent]] of the former Mandate territory.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-19 |title=Zionism {{!}} Definition, History, Examples, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zionism |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225204632/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Zionism |archive-date=25 December 2018 |access-date=2023-10-29 |website=britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Meir-Glitzenstein |first1=Esther |date=Fall 2018 |title=Turning Points in the Historiography of Jewish Immigration from Arab Countries to Israel |journal=Israel Studies |publisher=Indiana University Press |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=114–122 |doi=10.2979/israelstudies.23.3.15 |jstor=10.2979/israelstudies.23.3.15 |s2cid=150208821 |quote=The mass immigration from Arab countries began in mid-1949 and included three communities that relocated to Israel almost in their entirety: 31,000 Jews from Libya, 50,000 from Yemen, and 125,000 from Iraq. Additional immigrants arrived from Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, Iran, India, and elsewhere. Within three years, the Jewish population of Israel doubled. The ethnic composition of the population shifted as well, as immigrants from Muslim counties and their offspring now comprised one third of the Jewish population—an unprecedented phenomenon in global immigration history. From 1952–60, Israel regulated and restricted immigration from Muslim countries with a selective immigration policy based on economic criteria, and sent these immigrants, most of whom were North African, to peripheral Israeli settlements. The selective immigration policy ended in 1961 when, following an agreement between Israel and Morocco, about 100,000 Jews immigrated to the State. From 1952–68 about 600,000 Jews arrived in Israel, three quarters of whom were from Arab countries and the remaining immigrants were largely from Eastern Europe. Today fewer than 30,000 remain in Muslim countries, mostly concentrated in Iran and Turkey.}}</ref>{{sfn|Fischbach|2008|p=26–27}} The majority of [[Palestinians|Palestinian Arabs]] were either [[1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight|expelled or fled]] in what is known as the [[Nakba]], with [[Arab citizens of Israel|those remaining]] becoming the new state's main minority.{{sfn|Slater|2020|pp=81-92, 350|ps=, "[p. 350] It is no longer a matter of serious dispute that in the 1947–48 period—beginning well before the Arab invasion in May 1948—some 700,000 to 750,000 Palestinians were expelled from or fled their villages and homes in Israel in fear of their lives—an entirely justifiable fear, in light of massacres carried out by Zionist forces."}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ghanim |first1=Honaida |date=March 2009 |title=Poetics of Disaster: Nationalism, Gender, and Social Change Among Palestinian Poets in Israel After Nakba |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40608203 |journal=[[International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society]] |volume=22 |pages=23–39 [25–26] |doi=10.1007/s10767-009-9049-9 |jstor=40608203 |s2cid=144148068 |number=1 |issn=0891-4486 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106040944/https://www.jstor.org/stable/40608203 |archive-date=6 November 2021 |url-status=live |quote=Around 750,000–900,000 Palestinians were systematically expelled from their homes and lands and about 531 villages were deliberately destroyed.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cleveland |first1=William L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CUhaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT290 |title=A History of the Modern Middle East |last2=Bunton |first2=Martin |date=2016 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-429-97513-4 |language=en |page=270 |quote=Not only was there no Palestinian Arab state, but the vast majority of the Arab population in the territory that became Israel-over 700,000 people-had become refugees. The Arab flight from Palestine began during he intercommunal war and was at first the normal reaction of a civilian population to nearby fighting-a temporary evacuation from the zone of combat with plans to return once hostilities ceased. However, during spring and early summer 1948, the flight of the Palestinian Arabs was transformed itno a permanent mass exodus ... Once the Arab flight had started, it was encouraged by the [[Haganah]] ... Haganah field officers interpreted [[Plan Dalet|Plan D]] as giving them authority to undertake the systematic expulsion of the Palestinian Arabs living within the area allocated to the Jewish state as well as those whose villages were situated just inside the territory awarded to the Arab state ... Throughout the remainder of 1948 and into 1949, there were incidents of forced expulsion of Arabs. As a result, by the time the last armistice agreement was concluded in 1949, there remained only 160,000 Arabs within the borders of Israel.}}</ref> Over the following decades, Israel's population increased massively as the country received an influx of [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world#1948 Arab–Israeli War|Jews who emigrated, fled or were expelled from the Muslim world]].<ref name=":05">{{Cite journal |last=Beker |first=Avi |date=2005 |title=The Forgotten Narrative: Jewish Refugees from Arab Countries |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25834637 |journal=Jewish Political Studies Review |volume=17 |issue=3/4 |pages=3–19 |jstor=25834637 |issn=0792-335X |access-date=23 May 2024 |archive-date=9 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240109013108/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25834637 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Dinstein |first=Yoram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cpKEAAAQBAJ&dq=650000+%2872%25%29+of+these+Jews+resettled+in+Israel.&pg=PA282 |title=Israel Yearbook on Human Rights, Volume 6 (1976) |date=2021-10-11 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-42287-2 |pages=282 |language=en |access-date=23 May 2024 |archive-date=21 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521171644/https://books.google.com/books?id=-cpKEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA282&lpg=PA282&dq=650000+(72%25)+of+these+Jews+resettled+in+Israel.&source=bl&ots=F8PgTaUhaN&sig=ACfU3U0WsiDOJxluxSyPsNK60ypjp28O-A&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjnzt69mZ-GAxUiweYEHeYlBh04ChDoAXoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=650000%20(72%25)%20of%20these%20Jews%20resettled%20in%20Israel.&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> Following the 1967 [[Six-Day War]] Israel occupied the West Bank, Gaza Strip, Egyptian [[Israeli occupation of the Sinai Peninsula|Sinai Peninsula]] and Syrian [[Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights|Golan Heights]]. Israel established and continues to expand [[Israeli settlements|settlements]] across the [[Legality of the Israeli occupation of Palestine|illegally]] [[Israeli-occupied territories|occupied territories]], [[ICJ case on Israel's occupation of the Palestinian territories|contrary]] to [[International law and Israeli settlements|international law]], and has effectively annexed [[Israeli annexation of East Jerusalem|East Jerusalem]] and the [[Golan Heights Law|Golan Heights]] in moves largely unrecognized internationally. After the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], Israel signed peace treaties with [[Egypt–Israel peace treaty|Egypt]]—returning the Sinai in 1982—and [[Israel–Jordan peace treaty|Jordan]]. In the 2020s, it [[Arab–Israeli normalization|normalized relations]] with more Arab countries. However, [[Israeli–Palestinian peace process|efforts to resolve]] the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] after the interim [[Oslo Accords]] have not succeeded, and the country has engaged in [[Gaza–Israel conflict|several wars]] and clashes with Palestinian [[Palestinian political violence|militant groups]].  Israel's practices in its occupation of the Palestinian territories have drawn sustained international criticism along with accusations that it has committed [[Israeli war crimes|war crimes]] and crimes against humanity against the Palestinian people from human rights organizations and United Nations officials.

The country's [[Basic Laws of Israel|Basic Laws]] establish a [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] [[parliamentary system|parliament]] elected by [[proportional representation]], the [[Knesset]], which determines the makeup of the [[Cabinet of Israel|government]] headed by the [[Prime Minister of Israel|prime minister]] and elects the figurehead [[President of Israel|president]].<ref name="cnn" /> Israel is the only country to have a [[revived language|revived]] official language, [[Modern Hebrew|Hebrew]]. Its [[culture of Israel|culture]] comprises [[Jewish culture|Jewish]] and [[Jewish diaspora]] elements alongside [[Arab culture|Arab]] influences~~, involving [[Israeli cuisine|cuisine]], [[Music of Israel|music]], and [[Visual arts in Israel|art]]~~. Israel has one of the biggest [[List of Middle Eastern countries by GDP|economies in the Middle East]] and among the highest GDP per capita and [[List of countries in Asia and Oceania by Human Development Index|standards of living in Asia]]. One of the most [[Science and technology in Israel|technologically advanced and developed]] countries in the world, it [[List of sovereign states by research and development spending|spends proportionally]] more on [[research and development]] than any other and is widely believed to possess [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|nuclear weapons]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=WIPO |title=Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2023/index.html |access-date=2024-08-10 |website=www.wipo.int |date=2022 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |isbn=978-92-805-3432-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Getzoff |first=Marc |date=2023-12-01 |title=Most Technologically Advanced Countries In The World 2023 |url=https://gfmag.com/data/non-economic-data/most-advanced-countries-in-the-world/ |access-date=2024-08-06 |website=Global Finance Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The world richest countries according three metrics |url=https://www.visualcapitalist.com/worlds-richest-countries-across-3-metrics/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-09 |title=30 Wealthiest Countries by Per Capita Net Worth |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/30-wealthiest-countries-per-capita-111348314.html |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Yahoo Finance |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Getzoff |first=Marc |date=2023-08-09 |title=Most Technologically Advanced Countries In The World 2023 |url=https://gfmag.com/data/non-economic-data/most-advanced-countries-in-the-world/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231108044803/https://gfmag.com/data/non-economic-data/most-advanced-countries-in-the-world/ |archive-date=8 November 2023 |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=Global Finance Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-04 |title=Top 15 Most Advanced Countries in the World |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/top-15-most-advanced-countries-041038286.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110012152/https://finance.yahoo.com/news/top-15-most-advanced-countries-041038286.html |archive-date=10 January 2023 |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=Yahoo Finance |language=en-US}}</ref> The country joined the [[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] in 2010 and has the only above-replacement [[Total fertility rate|fertility rate]] among its members.<ref name="OECD">{{cite web |title=Israel's accession to the OECD |url=http://www.oecd.org/israel/israelsaccessiontotheoecd.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516012445/http://www.oecd.org/israel/israelsaccessiontotheoecd.htm |archive-date=16 May 2020 |access-date=12 August 2012 |website=oecd.org |publisher=OECD}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-05-27 |title=Israel to join prestigious OECD economic club |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20100527-israel-join-prestigious-oecd-economic-club-netanyahu-sarkozy-paris |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123013723/https://www.france24.com/en/20100527-israel-join-prestigious-oecd-economic-club-netanyahu-sarkozy-paris |archive-date=23 November 2023 |access-date=2023-11-23 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite news |date=21 June 2024 |title=Israel's birth rate remains highest in OECD by far, at 2.9 children per woman |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israels-birth-rate-remains-highest-in-oecd-by-far-at-2-9-children-per-woman |work=Times of Israel}}</ref>

==Etymology==

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A people named Israel appear for the first time in the [[Merneptah Stele]], an [[ancient Egypt]]ian inscription which dates to about 1200 BCE.<ref name="NollMerneptah">K.L. Noll, [https://books.google.com/books?id=hMeRK7B1EsMC&pg=PA139 ''Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion,''] A&C Black, 2012, rev.ed. pp. 137ff.</ref><ref name="ThompsonMerneptah">[[Thomas L. Thompson]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=RwrrUuHFb6UC&pg=PA275 ''Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources,''] Brill, 2000 pp. 275–276: 'They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.'</ref>{{refn|group=fn |The [[Israel (name)|personal name "Israel"]] appears much earlier, in material from [[Ebla]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hasel |first=Michael G. |date=1 January 1994 |title=Israel in the Merneptah Stela |journal=Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research |volume=296 |issue=296 |pages=45–61 |doi=10.2307/1357179 |jstor=1357179 |s2cid=164052192}} * {{Cite book |last=Bertman |first=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1C4NKp4zgIQC&q=ebla%20israel%20ishmael%20abraham&pg=PA317 |title=Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia |date=14 July 2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-518364-1}} * {{cite book |author1=Meindert Dijkstra |title=Between Evidence and Ideology Essays on the History of Ancient Israel read at the Joint Meeting of the Society for Old Testament Study and the Oud Testamentisch Werkgezelschap Lincoln, July 2009 |date=2010 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-18737-5 |editor1-last=Becking |editor1-first=Bob |editor1-link=Lester L. Grabbe |page=47 |chapter=Origins of Israel between history and ideology |quote=As a West Semitic personal name it existed long before it became a tribal or a geographical name. This is not without significance, though is it rarely mentioned. We learn of a maryanu named ysr"il (*Yi¡sr—a"ilu) from Ugarit living in the same period, but the name was already used a thousand years before in Ebla. The word Israel originated as a West Semitic personal name. One of the many names that developed into the name of the ancestor of a clan, of a tribe and finally of a people and a nation. |editor2-last=Grabbe |editor2-first=Lester}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lemche |first1=Niels Peter |year=1998 |title=The Israelites in History and Tradition |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |url={{Google books|JIoY7PagAOAC|page=PA35|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |page=35|isbn=978-0-664-22727-2}}</ref> Ancestors of the [[Israelites]] are thought to have included [[ancient Semitic-speaking peoples]] native to this area.<ref name="Miller1986">{{Cite book |last1=Miller |first1=James Maxwell |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofancient00mill |title=A History of Ancient Israel and Judah |last2=Hayes |first2=John Haralson |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-664-21262-9}}</ref>{{rp|78–79}} Modern archaeological accounts suggest that the Israelites and their culture branched out of the Canaanite peoples<ref>Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)</ref> through the development of a distinct [[Monolatry|monolatristic]]—and later [[Monotheism|monotheistic]]—religion centered on [[Yahweh]].<ref>Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gnuse |first1=Robert Karl |title=No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel |date=1997 |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press Ltd |isbn=978-1-85075-657-6 |pages=28, 31}}</ref> They spoke an archaic form of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], known as [[Biblical Hebrew]].<ref>Steiner, Richard C. (1997), "Ancient Hebrew", in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), ''The Semitic Languages'', Routledge, pp. 145–173, {{ISBN|978-0-415-05767-7}}</ref> Around the same time, the [[Philistines]] settled on the southern [[Israeli coastal plain|coastal plain]].{{sfn|Killebrew|2005|p=230}}{{sfn|Shahin|2005|p=6}}

Modern [[archaeology]] has largely discarded [[Historicity of the Bible|the historicity]] of the narrative in the [[Torah]] and instead views the narrative as the Israelites' [[national myth]].<ref name=":9">{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |year=2001 |publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=978-3-927120-37-2 |url={{Google books|6-VxwC5rQtwC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}</ref> However, some elements of these traditions do appear to have historical roots.<ref name=":9" /><ref>{{harvnb|Faust|2015|p=476}}: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt.."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Redmount|2001|p=61}}: "A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative."</ref><ref name=":03">{{cite book |last=Dever |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6-VxwC5rQtwC |title=What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It? |publisher=Eerdmans |year=2001 |isbn=978-3-927120-37-2 |pages=98–99 |quote=After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.}}</ref> There is debate about the earliest existence of the [[History of ancient Israel and Judah|Kingdoms of Israel and Judah]] and their extent and power. While it is unclear if there was ever a [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|United Kingdom of Israel]],<ref name="lipschits">{{cite book |last1=Lipschits |first1=Oded |title=The Jewish Study Bible |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-997846-5 |editor1-last=Berlin |editor1-first=Adele |edition=2nd |language=en |chapter=The History of Israel in the Biblical Period |editor2-last=Brettler |editor2-first=Marc Zvi |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160917/https://books.google.com/books?id=yErYBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Kuhrtp438">{{cite book |last=Kuhrt |first=Amiele |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438 |title=The Ancient Near East |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-16762-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientneareastc00akuh/page/438 438]}}</ref> historians and archaeologists agree that the northern [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Kingdom of Israel]] existed by {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 900 BCE<ref name="Finkelstein">{{cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |title=The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |date=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4 |edition=1st Touchstone }}</ref>{{rp|169–195}}<ref name="Wright">{{cite web|last1=Wright|first1=Jacob L.|date=July 2014|title=David, King of Judah (Not Israel)|url=http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301164250/http://www.bibleinterp.com/articles/2014/07/wri388001.shtml|archive-date=1 March 2021|access-date=15 May 2021|website=The Bible and Interpretation}}</ref> and the [[Kingdom of Judah]] by {{Abbr|ca.|circa}} 850 BCE.<ref name="Finkelstein, Israel, (2020)">Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). [https://books.google.com/books?id=wH3-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33 "Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem"], in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), ''Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives'', SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57: "...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."</ref><ref name="Pitcher">[https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229 The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409160404/https://books.google.com/books?id=tu02muKUVJ0C&pg=PA229 |date=9 April 2023 }} Quote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."</ref> The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two and soon developed into a regional power, with a capital at [[Samaria (ancient city)|Samaria]];<ref>{{harvnb|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|pp=146–7}}: Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. ... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power.</ref><ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |title=The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-911-3 |pages=65–66; 73; 78; 87–94 |oclc=880456140}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Finkelstein |first=Israel |date=1 November 2011 |title=Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=194–207 |doi=10.1179/033443511x13099584885303 |issn=0334-4355 |s2cid=128814117}}</ref> during the [[Omride Dynasty|Omride dynasty]], it controlled [[Samaria]], [[Galilee]], the upper [[Jordan Valley]], the [[Sharon plain|Sharon]] and large parts of the [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Israel.|first=Finkelstein|title=The forgotten kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel|isbn=978-1-58983-910-6|page=74|oclc=949151323}}</ref>

The Kingdom of Israel was conquered around 720 BCE by the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]].<ref name="Broshi 2001 174">{{cite book |last=Broshi |first=Maguen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PAPA174 |title=Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-84127-201-6 |page=174 |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=10 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210203455/https://books.google.com/books?id=etTUEorS1zMC&pg=PAPA174 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Kingdom of Judah, under [[Davidic line|Davidic]] rule with its capital in [[Jerusalem]], later became a [[client state]] of first the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]. It is estimated that [[Demographic history of Palestine (region)|the region's population]] was around 400,000 in the [[Iron Age II]].<ref name=":42">Broshi, M., & Finkelstein, I. (1992). [https://www.academia.edu/40790691/M_Broshi_and_I_Finkelstein_The_Population_of_Palestine_in_Iron_Age_II_BASOR_287_1992_pp_47_60 "The Population of Palestine in Iron Age II"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305224039/https://www.academia.edu/40790691/M_Broshi_and_I_Finkelstein_The_Population_of_Palestine_in_Iron_Age_II_BASOR_287_1992_pp_47_60 |date=5 March 2023 }}. ''Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research'', ''287''(1), 47–60.</ref> In 587/6 BCE, following a [[Judah's revolts against Babylon|revolt in Judah]], King [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged and destroyed Jerusalem]] and Solomon's Temple,<ref>{{harvnb|Finkelstein|Silberman|2002|p=307}}: "Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied."</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lipschits |first=Oded |date=1999 |title=The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule |journal=Tel Aviv |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=155–190 |doi=10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155 |issn=0334-4355}}</ref> dissolved the kingdom and [[Babylonian captivity|exiled much of the Judean elite to Babylon]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wheeler |first=P. |date=2017 |title=Review of the book Song of Exile: The Enduring Mystery of Psalm 137, by David W. Stowe |journal=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=696–697 |doi=10.1353/cbq.2017.0092 |s2cid=171830838}}</ref>

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[[File:THEODOR HERZL AT THE FIRST ZIONIST CONGRESS IN BASEL ON 25.8.1897. תאודור הרצל בקונגרס הציוני הראשון - 1897.8.25.jpg|thumb|The [[First Zionist Congress]] (1897) in [[Basel]], Switzerland]]

~~Since~~The ~~the~~[[Return ~~existence~~to Zion|concept of the ~~[[Jewish diaspora~~"return"]], ~~many~~remained ~~Jews~~a ~~have~~symbol ~~aspired~~within toreligious Jewish belief which emphasized that their ~~[[Aliyah|~~return]] toshould ~~"Zion"~~be determined by Divine Providence rather than human action.~~<ref>~~{{~~harvnb~~sfn|~~Rosenzweig~~Avineri|~~1997|p=~~2017}} Leading Zionist historian [~~https://books.google.com/books?id=wKuU3ZBS7gEC&pg=PA1~~[Shlomo 1Avineri]]~~}}.~~ ~~"Zionism,~~describes ~~the~~this ~~urge~~connection: of"Jews ~~the~~did ~~Jewish~~not ~~people~~relate to ~~return~~the tovision ~~Palestine,~~of isthe ~~almost~~Return asin ~~ancient~~a asmore ~~the~~active ~~Jewish~~way ~~diaspora~~than ~~itself.~~most ~~Some~~Christians ~~Talmudic~~viewed the ~~statements~~Second Coming..." ~~Almost~~The areligious ~~millennium~~Judaic ~~later,~~notion ~~the~~of ~~poet~~being ~~and~~a ~~philosopher~~nation ~~Yehuda~~was ~~Halevi~~distinct ~~... In~~from the ~~19th~~modern ~~century ~~European notion of nationalism.~~.."</ref>~~{{sfn|Shimoni|1995}} The Jewish population of Palestine from the Ottoman rule to the beginning of the Zionist movement, known as the [[Old Yishuv]], comprised a minority and fluctuated in size. During the 16th century, Jewish communities struck roots in the [[Four Holy Cities]]—[[Jerusalem]], [[Tiberias]], [[Hebron]], and [[Safed]]—and in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eisen |first=Yosef |title=Miraculous journey: a complete history of the Jewish people from creation to the present |publisher=Targum Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-56871-323-6 |page=700}}</ref> A 1660 [[Druze power struggle (1658–1667)#Lebanon and Galilee campaign|Druze revolt]] against the Ottomans destroyed [[1660 destruction of Safed|Safed]] and [[1660 destruction of Tiberias|Tiberias]].<ref name=":7" /> In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern European Jews who were [[Misnagdim|opponents]] of [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidism]], known as the [[Perushim]], settled in Palestine.<ref>{{cite book |last=Morgenstern |first=Arie |title=Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-530578-4 |page=304}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Barnai |first=Jacob |title=The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: Under the Patronage of the Istanbul committee of Officials for Palestine |publisher=University Alabama Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8173-0572-7 |page=320}}</ref>

In the late 18th century, local Arab [[Sheikh]] [[Zahir al-Umar]] created a de facto independent Emirate in the Galilee. Ottoman attempts to subdue the Sheikh failed. After Zahir's death the Ottomans regained control of the area. In 1799, governor [[Jazzar Pasha]] repelled an [[Siege of Acre (1799)|assault on Acre]] by [[Napoleon]]'s troops, prompting the French to abandon the Syrian campaign.<ref>{{cite web |title=Palestine – Ottoman rule |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine#ref45065 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204202215/https://www.britannica.com/place/Palestine#ref45065 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |access-date=27 November 2018 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> In 1834, a [[Peasants' revolt in Palestine|revolt by Palestinian Arab peasants]] against Egyptian conscription and taxation policies under [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali]] was suppressed; Muhammad Ali's army retreated and Ottoman rule was restored with British support in 1840.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macalister |first1=R. A. Stewart |last2=Masterman |first2=E. W. G. |year=1906 |title=The Modern Inhabitants of Palestine |url=https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme38pale#page |journal=Quarterly Statement – Palestine Exploration Fund |page=[https://archive.org/stream/quarterlystateme38pale#page/40/mode/1up 40]}}</ref> The [[Tanzimat]] reforms were implemented across the Ottoman Empire.

The first wave of modern Jewish migration to [[Southern Syria|Ottoman-ruled Palestine]], known as the [[First Aliyah]], began in 1881, as Jews fled [[pogrom]]s in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Halpern|first=Ben|title=Zionism and the creation of a new society |url=https://archive.org/details/zionismcreationn00halp|url-access=limited|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Reinharz, Jehuda |year=1998|isbn=978-0-585-18273-5|pages=[https://archive.org/details/zionismcreationn00halp/page/n61 53]–54|oclc=44960036}}</ref> The 1882 [[May Laws]] increased economic discrimination against Jews, and restricted where they could live.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mandel |first=Neville J. |date=1974 |title=Ottoman Policy and Restrictions on Jewish Settlement in Palestine: 1881–1908: Part I |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=10 |issue=3 |url=https://ismi.emory.edu/documents/Readings/Mandel,%20Neville%20J.%20Ottoman%20Policy.pdf |pages=312–332 |doi=10.1080/00263207408700278 |issn=0026-3206 |access-date=1 December 2023 |archive-date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203103201/https://ismi.emory.edu/documents/Readings/Mandel,%20Neville%20J.%20Ottoman%20Policy.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Levine|first=Aaron|date=2014|title=Russian Jews and the 1917 Revolution|url=https://psource.sitehost.iu.edu/PDF/Archive%20Articles/Spring2014/2014%20-%20Spring%20-%203%20-%20Levine%20Aaron.pdf|page=14|access-date=7 December 2023|archive-date=8 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308091831/https://psource.sitehost.iu.edu/PDF/Archive%20Articles/Spring2014/2014%20-%20Spring%20-%203%20-%20Levine%20Aaron.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In response, political [[Zionism]] took form, a movement that sought to establish a [[Jewish state]] in ~~the Land of Israel~~Palestine, thus offering a solution to the [[Jewish question]] of the European states.{{sfn|Herzl|1946|p=11}}{{better source needed|date=September 2024}} Antisemitism, pogroms and official policies, in tsarist Russia led to the emigration of three million Jews in the years between 1882 and 1914, only 1% of which went to Palestine. Those who went to Palestine were driven primarily by ideas of self-determination and Jewish identity, rather than as a response to pogroms or economic insecurity.{{sfn|Avineri|2017}}

The [[Second Aliyah]] (1904–1914) began after the [[Kishinev pogrom]]; some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, although nearly half left eventually. Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainly [[Orthodox Jews]].<ref>{{harvnb|Stein|2003|p=88}}. "As with the First Aliyah, most Second Aliyah migrants were non-Zionist orthodox Jews ..."</ref> The Second Aliyah included [[Labor Zionism|Zionist socialist]] groups who established the ''[[kibbutz]]'' movement based on the idea of establishing a separate Jewish economy based exclusively on Jewish labor.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moris |first1=Beni |title=Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 |date=2001 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780679744757 |edition=1. Vintage Books |quote=Many of these newcomers possessed a mixture of socialist and nationalist values, and they eventually succeeded in setting up a separate Jewish economy, based wholly on Jewish labor.}}</ref>{{sfn|Romano|2003|p=30}} Those of the Second Aliyah who became leaders of the [[Yishuv]] in the coming decades believed that the Jewish settler economy should not depend on Arab labor. This would be a dominant source of antagonism with the Arab population, with the new Yishuv's nationalist ideology overpowering its socialist one.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moris |first1=Beni |title=Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 |date=2001 |publisher=Vintage Books |location=New York, NY |isbn=9780679744757 |edition=1. Vintage Books |quote=Another major cause of antagonism was the labor controversy. The hard core of Second Aliyah socialists, who were to become the Yishuv's leaders in the 1920s and 1930s, believed that the settler economy must not depend on or exploit Arab labor... But, in reality, rather than “meshing,” the nationalist ethos had simply overpowered and driven out the socialist ethos... There were other reasons for the “conquest of labor.” The socialists of the Second Aliyah used the term to denote three things: overcoming the Jews' traditional remove from agricultural labor and helping them transform into the “new Jews”; struggling against employers for better conditions; and replacing Arabs with Jews in manual jobs.}}</ref> Though the immigrants of the Second Aliyah largely sought to create communal Jewish agricultural settlements, [[Tel Aviv]] was established as the first planned Jewish town in 1909. Jewish armed militias emerged during this period, the first being [[Bar-Giora (organization)|Bar-Giora]] in 1907. Two years later, the larger [[Hashomer]] organization was founded as its replacement.

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On 22 July 1946, Irgun [[King David Hotel bombing|bombed]] the British administrative headquarters for Palestine, killing 91.<ref>The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty-First | By Paul J. Smith | M.E. Sharpe, 2007 | p. 27</ref><ref>''Encyclopedia of Terrorism'', [[Harvey W. Kushner]], Sage, 2003 p. 181</ref><ref name="brtca_irgun">[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293947/Irgun-Zvai-Leumi#ref112521 Encyclopædia Britannica] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417201023/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293947/Irgun-Zvai-Leumi#ref112521 |date=17 April 2015 }} article on the Irgun Zvai Leumi</ref><ref>The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism. William Roger Louis, Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 430</ref><ref name="tclarke81">[[Thurston Clarke|Clarke, Thurston]]. ''By Blood and Fire'', G.P. Puttnam's Sons, 1981</ref><ref name="bethell">{{Cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Bethell|title=The Palestine Triangle|publisher=Andre Deutsch|year=1979}}</ref> The attack was a response to [[Operation Agatha]] (a series of raids, including one on the [[Jewish Agency for Israel|Jewish Agency]], by the British) and was the deadliest directed at the British during the Mandate era.<ref name="tclarke81"/><ref name="bethell"/> The Jewish insurgency continued throughout 1946 and 1947 despite concerted efforts by the British military and [[Palestine Police Force]] to suppress it. British efforts to mediate a negotiated solution with Jewish and Arab representatives also failed as the Jews were unwilling to accept any solution that did not involve a Jewish state and suggested a partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, while the Arabs were adamant that a Jewish state in any part of Palestine was unacceptable and that the only solution was a unified Palestine under Arab rule. In February 1947, the British referred the Palestine issue to the newly formed [[United Nations]]. On 15 May 1947, the [[General Assembly of the United Nations|UN General Assembly]] resolved that a [[United Nations Special Committee on Palestine|Special Committee]] be created "to prepare ... a report on the question of Palestine".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F5A49E57095C35B685256BCF0075D9C2 |title=A/RES/106 (S-1) |date=15 May 1947 |website=General Assembly resolution |publisher=United Nations |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806072438/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/F5A49E57095C35B685256BCF0075D9C2 |archive-date=6 August 2012 }}</ref> The Report of the Committee<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/07175DE9FA2DE563852568D3006E10F3 |title=A/364 |date=3 September 1947 |website=Special Committee on Palestine |publisher=United Nations |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610173759/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/07175DE9FA2DE563852568D3006E10F3 |archive-date=10 June 2012 }}</ref> [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|proposed a plan]] to replace the British Mandate with "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem [...] the last to be under an International Trusteeship System".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/2248AF9A92B498718525694B007239C6 |publisher=United Nations |date=20 April 1949 |access-date=31 July 2007 |title=Background Paper No. 47 (ST/DPI/SER.A/47) |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110103014616/http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/2248AF9A92B498718525694B007239C6 |archive-date=3 January 2011 }}</ref> Meanwhile, the Jewish insurgency continued and peaked in July 1947, with a series of widespread guerrilla raids culminating in [[the Sergeants affair]], in which the Irgun took two British sergeants hostage as attempted leverage against the planned execution of three Irgun operatives. After the executions were carried out, the Irgun killed the two British soldiers, hanged their bodies from trees, and left a booby trap at the scene which injured a British soldier. The incident caused widespread outrage in the UK.<ref name=Hoffman>Hoffman, Bruce: ''Anonymous Soldiers'' (2015)</ref> In September 1947, the British cabinet decided to evacuate Palestine as the Mandate was no longer tenable.<ref>{{Cite web |title=British Colonial Office Statement upon Termination of the Mandate for Palestine - English (1948) |url=https://ecf.org.il/media_items/943 |access-date=2024-06-20 |website=ecf.org.il |page=10 |language=en}}</ref>

On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly adopted [[United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine|Resolution 181 (II)]].<ref name="181(II)">{{cite web |url=https://unispal.un.org/DPA/DPR/unispal.nsf/0/7F0AF2BD897689B785256C330061D253 |title=Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine |date=29 November 1947 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=21 March 2017 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010090147/https://unispal.un.org/DPA/DPR/unispal.nsf/0/7F0AF2BD897689B785256C330061D253 }}</ref> The plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed in the report of 3 September. The [[Jewish Agency]], the recognized representative of the Jewish community, accepted the plan, which assigned 55–56% of Mandatory Palestine to the Jews. At the time, the Jews were about a third of the population and owned around 6–7% of the land. Arabs constituted the majority and owned about 20% of the land, with the remainder held by the Mandate authorities or foreign landowners.<ref>Avneri, Aryeh L. (1984). ''The Claim of Dispossession: Jewish Land-Settlement and the Arabs, 1878–1948.'' Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87855-964-0. Retrieved 2 May 2009, p. 224.</ref><ref>Stein, Kenneth W. (1987) [Original in 1984]. The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4178-5. pp. 3–4, 247</ref><ref>[[Nathan Thrall]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=1oXZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA227 ''The Only Language They Understand: Forcing Compromise in Israel and Palestine''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219070639/https://books.google.com/books?id=1oXZDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA227#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=19 December 2023 }}, [[Henry Holt and Company]] 2017 {{isbn|978-1-627-79710-8}} pp. 41,227 n.9.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Imseis|2021|pp=13–14}}: 'As to territorial boundaries, under the plan the Jewish State was allotted approximately 57 percent of the total area of Palestine even though the Jewish population comprised only 33 percent of the country. In addition, according to British records relied upon by the ad hoc committee, the Jewish population possessed registered ownership of only 5.6 percent of Palestine, and was eclipsed by the Arabs in land ownership in every one of Palestine's 16 sub-districts. Moreover, the quality of the land granted to the proposed Jewish state was highly skewed in its favour. UNSCOP reported that under its majority plan "[t]he Jews will have the more economically developed part of the country embracing practically the whole of the citrus-producing area"—Palestine's staple export crop—even though approximately half of the citrus-bearing land was owned by the Arabs. In addition, according to updated British records submitted to the ad hoc committee's two sub-committees, "of the irrigated, cultivable areas" of the country, 84 per cent would be in the Jewish State and 16 per cent would be in the Arab State".'</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Morris|2008|p=75}}: "The night of 29–30 November passed in the Yishuv's settlements in noisy public rejoicing. Most had sat glued to their radio sets broadcasting live from Flushing Meadow. A collective cry of joy went up when the two-thirds mark was achieved: a state had been sanctioned by the international community."</ref><ref name="Morris2008396">{{harvnb|Morris|2008|p=396}}: "The immediate trigger of the 1948 War was the November 1947 UN partition resolution. The Zionist movement, except for its fringes, accepted the proposal."</ref><ref>Matthews, John: [http://booksand-ebooks.com/political-commentary/israel-palestine-land-division Israel-Palestine land division] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005145922/http://booksand-ebooks.com/political-commentary/israel-palestine-land-division |date=5 October 2023 }}</ref> The [[Arab League]] and [[Arab Higher Committee]] of Palestine rejected it on the basis that the partition plan privileged European interests over those of the Palestinians,<ref>{{harvnb|Imseis|2021|pp=14–15}}: 'Although the Zionists had coveted the whole of Palestine, the Jewish Agency leadership pragmatically, if grudgingly, accepted Resolution 181(II). Although they were of the view that the Jewish national home promised in the Mandate was equivalent to a Jewish state, they well understood that such a claim could not be maintained under prevailing international law..Based on its own terms, it is impossible to escape the conclusion that the partition plan privileged European interests over those of Palestine's indigenous people and, as such, was an embodiment of the Eurocentricity of the international system that was allegedly a thing of the past. For this reason, the Arabs took a more principled position in line with prevailing international law, rejecting partition outright . .This rejection has disingenuously been presented in some of the literature as indicative of political intransigence,69 and even hostility towards the Jews as Jews'</ref> and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition.<ref>{{harvnb|Morris|2008}}, p. 66: at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a "unitary" state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews.", p. 67: at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called "aggression," "without mercy." The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance "in manpower, money and equipment" should the United Nations endorse partition.", p. 72: at December 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language, "to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.""</ref>{{sfn|Bregman|2002|pp=40–41}} On 1 December 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike, and [[1947 Jerusalem riots|riots broke out in Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Palestine 1948 |last=Gelber |first=Yoav |year=2006 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-902210-67-4 |page=17}}</ref> The situation spiraled into a [[1947–48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine|civil war]]. Colonial Secretary [[Arthur Creech Jones]] announced that the British Mandate would end on 15 May 1948, at which point the British would evacuate. As Arab militias and gangs attacked Jewish areas, they were faced mainly by the [[Haganah]], as well as the smaller Irgun and Lehi. In April 1948, the Haganah moved onto the offensive.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=77–78}}<ref>{{cite book |title=War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy |last=Tal |first=David |year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-7146-5275-7 |page=471}}</ref> ~~During this period 250,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled, due to [[Causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus|numerous factors]].{{sfn|Morris|2008}}~~

=== State of Israel ===

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[[File:Declaration of State of Israel 1948.jpg|thumb|right|[[David Ben-Gurion]] declaring the [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|establishment of Israel]] on 14 May 1948]]

On 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate, [[David Ben-Gurion]], the head of the Jewish Agency, [[Israeli Declaration of Independence|declared]] "the establishment of a Jewish state in [[Eretz-Israel]]".<ref>Clifford, Clark, "Counsel to the President: A Memoir", 1991, p. 20.</ref> The only reference in the text of the Declaration to the borders of the new state is the use of the term ''Eretz-Israel'' ("[[Land of Israel]]").{{citation needed|date=March 2024}} The following day, the armies of four Arab countries—[[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]], [[Syrian Republic (1946–63)|Syria]], [[Jordan|Transjordan]] and [[Kingdom of Iraq|Iraq]]—entered what had been Mandatory Palestine, launching the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War]];<ref>{{cite book |trans-quote=The entry into (the) war of the Arab countries poses a complex legal problem. The crossing of the borders can constitute an act of aggression or a threat against peace, justifying a condemnation and an intervention by the United Nations, but if the armies penetrate only the Arab part of the partition plan, they can be considered as called on (to do so) by the population and at this stage their '''intervention''' would not in itself be a threat against the peace. That would only start were the Jewish part attacked. Now, the Arab armies do directly threaten Jewish territory at certain points while in others the Jews have already largely taken up positions in Arab territory. |quote=L'entrée en guerre des pays arabes pose un problem juridique complexe. Le franchissement des frontières peut constituer un acte d'aggression ou une menace contre la paix, justifiant une condannation et une intervention des Nations unies, mais si les armées pénètrent seulement dans la partie arabe du plan de partage, elles peuvent être considérées comme appelées par la population et à ce stade leur intervention ne serait pas par elle-même une menace contre la paix. Elle ne commencerait qu'avec l'attaque de la partie juive. Or, en certains points, les armées arabes menacent directement le territoire juif et dans d'autres les Juifs se sont déjà largement installés en territoire arabe. |author-link=Henry Laurens (scholar) |author=Henry Laurens |title=La Question de Palestine |publisher=[[Fayard]] |place=Paris |year=2007 |volume=3 |page=104}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Arab–Israeli conflict: The Palestine War 1948 |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-372-9|page=50}}</ref>{{sfn|Ben-Sasson|1985|p=1058}} contingents from [[Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen|Yemen]], [[Morocco]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Sudan]] joined the war.{{sfn|Morris|2008|p=205}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present |last=Rabinovich |first=Itamar |author2=Reinharz, Jehuda |year=2007 |publisher=Brandeis |isbn=978-0-87451-962-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74 74] |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780874519624/page/74 }}</ref> The apparent purpose of the invasion was to prevent the establishment of the Jewish state~~; some Arab leaders talked about "driving the Jews into the sea"~~.<ref name="Morris2008396"/><ref>{{cite book |title=War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs2PAgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPR4 |author=David Tal |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-77513-1 |page=469 |quote=some of the Arab armies invaded Palestine in order to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state, Transjordan... |access-date=1 December 2018 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219070640/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vs2PAgAAQBAJ&pg=PAPR4#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Morris|2008|p=187}}: "A week before the armies marched, Azzam told Kirkbride: "It does not matter how many [Jews] there are. We will sweep them into the sea." ... Ahmed Shukeiry, one of Haj Amin al-Husseini's aides (and, later, the founding chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization), simply described the aim as "the elimination of the Jewish state." ... al-Quwwatli told his people: "Our army has entered ... we shall win and we shall eradicate Zionism""</ref> The Arab league stated the invasion was to restore order and prevent further bloodshed.<ref name=cablegram>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=S/745 |title=PDF copy of Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations: S/745: 15 May 1948 |publisher=Un.org |date=9 September 2002 |access-date=13 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107030419/http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=S%2F745 |archive-date=7 January 2014 }}</ref>

After a year of fighting, a [[1949 Armistice Agreements|ceasefire was declared]] and temporary borders, known as the [[Green Line (Israel)|Green Line]], were established.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Arab–Israeli conflict: The Palestine War 1948 |last=Karsh |first=Efraim |year=2002 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-372-9}}</ref> Jordan [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|annexed]] what became known as the [[West Bank]], including [[East Jerusalem]], and Egypt [[Occupation of the Gaza Strip by Egypt|occupied]] the [[Gaza Strip]]. Over 700,000 Palestinians fled or were [[1948 Palestinian exodus|expelled ~~by or fled~~]] by [[Zionist political violence|Zionist militias]] and the [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli military]]—what would become known in Arabic as the ''[[Nakba]]'' ('catastrophe').<ref>{{cite book |last=Morris|first=Benny|author-link=Benny Morris|title=The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited|isbn=978-0-521-00967-6 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=602 |year=2004 }}</ref> The events also led to the destruction of most of Palestine's predominantly Arab population's society, [[Culture of Palestine|culture]], [[Palestinian identity|identity]], political rights, and [[Palestinian nationalism|national aspirations]]. Some 156,000 remained and became [[Arab citizens of Israel]].<ref name=":2">{{cite web|url=https://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=13336|title=עיצוב יחסי יהודים - ערבים בעשור הראשון|website=lib.cet.ac.il|access-date=2 September 2021|archive-date=8 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008065301/https://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=13336|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Raising the Ink Flag at Umm Rashrash (Eilat) (3x4).jpg|thumb|right|Raising of the [[Ink Flag]] on 10 March 1949, marking the end of the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|1948 war]]]]

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[[File:1961-04-13 Tale Of Century - Eichmann Tried For War Crimes.ogv|thumb|U.S. newsreel on the trial of [[Adolf Eichmann]]]]

In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminal [[Adolf Eichmann]] in Argentina and brought him to Israel for [[Eichmann trial|trial]].{{sfn|Bascomb|2009|p=219–229}} Eichmann remains the only person executed in Israel by conviction in an [[Israeli judicial system|Israeli civilian court]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Shlomo Shpiro |title=No place to hide: Intelligence and civil liberties in Israel |journal=Cambridge Review of International Affairs |volume=19 |issue=44 |pages=629–648 |year=2006 |s2cid=144734253 |doi=10.1080/09557570601003361}}</ref> In 1963, Israel was engaged in a diplomatic standoff with the United States due to the Israeli [[Nuclear weapons and Israel|nuclear programme]].<ref name="Haaretz2019">{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-how-a-standoff-with-the-u-s-almost-blew-up-israel-s-nuclear-program-1.7193419|title=How a Standoff with the U.S. Almost Blew up Israel's Nuclear Program|newspaper=Haaretz|date=3 May 2019|last1=Cohen|first1=Avner|access-date=11 November 2019|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202173023/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium.MAGAZINE-how-a-standoff-with-the-u-s-almost-blew-up-israel-s-nuclear-program-1.7193419|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2019-05-02/battle-letters-1963-john-f-kennedy-david-ben-gurion-levi-eshkol-us-inspections-dimona |title=The Battle of the Letters, 1963: John F. Kennedy, David Ben-Gurion, Levi Eshkol, and the U.S. Inspections of Dimona {{pipe}} National Security Archive |date=29 April 2019 |access-date=11 November 2019 |archive-date=11 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111141328/https://nsarchive.gwu.edu/briefing-book/nuclear-vault/2019-05-02/battle-letters-1963-john-f-kennedy-david-ben-gurion-levi-eshkol-us-inspections-dimona |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since 1964, Arab countries, concerned over Israeli plans to divert waters of the [[Jordan River]] into the [[Israeli coastal plain|coastal plain]],<ref>"The Politics of Miscalculation in the Middle East", by Richard B. Parker (1993 Indiana University Press) p. 38</ref> had been trying to divert the headwaters to deprive Israel of water resources, provoking [[War over Water (Jordan river)|tensions]] between Israel on the one hand, and Syria and Lebanon on the other. [[Arab nationalist]]s led by Egyptian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] refused to recognize Israel and called for its destruction.<ref name="RoutledgeAtlas">{{Harvnb|Gilbert|2005|p=1}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Syria and Israel: From War to Peacemaking |last=Maoz |first=Moshe |year=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-828018-7 |page=70 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/5/newsid_2654000/2654251.stm |title=On This Day 5 Jun |date=5 June 1967 |publisher=BBC |access-date=26 December 2011 |archive-date=14 July 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070714044705/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/5/newsid_2654000/2654251.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of battles taking place between Israeli and Arab forces.{{sfn|Segev|2007|p=178}}

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[[File:Rocket Attacks fired at Israel from the Gaza Strip by year.png|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel|Rocket attacks fired at Israel]] from the Gaza Strip, 2001–2021<ref name="pinfold">{{cite journal|last1=Pinfold|first1=Rob Geist|year=2023|title=Security, Terrorism, and Territorial Withdrawal: Critically Reassessing the Lessons of Israel's "Unilateral Disengagement" from the Gaza Strip|url=https://academic.oup.com/isp/article/24/1/67/6762979|journal=International Studies Perspectives|volume=24|issue=1|pages=67–87|doi=10.1093/isp/ekac013|institution=King’s College London, UK and Charles University, Czech Republic|doi-access=free|access-date=2 November 2023|archive-date=17 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231017014412/https://academic.oup.com/isp/article/24/1/67/6762979|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

In late 2000, after a controversial visit by Likud leader [[Ariel Sharon]] to the [[Temple Mount]], the 4.5-year [[Second Intifada]] began. [[Palestinian suicide attacks|Suicide bombings]] were a recurrent feature.<ref>Sela-Shayovitz, R. (2007). Suicide bombers in Israel: Their motivations, characteristics, and prior activity in terrorist organizations. ''International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV)'', ''1''(2), 163. "The period of the second Intifada significantly differs from other historical periods in Israeli history, because it has been characterized by intensive and numerous suicide attacks that have made civilian life into a battlefront."</ref> Some commentators contend that the Intifada was pre-planned by Arafat due to the collapse of peace talks.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thejc.com/news/world-news/114827/the-big-myth-he-caused-second-intifada |title=The big myth: that he caused the Second Intifada |last=Gross |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Gross|date=16 January 2014 |newspaper=The Jewish Chronicle |access-date=22 April 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304193513/http://www.thejc.com/news/world-news/114827/the-big-myth-he-caused-second-intifada |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Hong |first=Nicole |date=23 February 2015 |title=Jury Finds Palestinian Authority, PLO Liable for Terrorist Attacks in Israel a Decade Ago |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/jury-finds-palestinian-authority-plo-liable-for-terrorist-attacks-in-israel-a-decade-ago-1424715529 |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=22 April 2016 |archive-date=14 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414204555/http://www.wsj.com/articles/jury-finds-palestinian-authority-plo-liable-for-terrorist-attacks-in-israel-a-decade-ago-1424715529 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=jewishweek>{{cite news |url=http://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid=3846 |title=PA: Intifada Was Planned |last=Ain |first=Stewart |date=20 December 2000 |newspaper=The Jewish Week |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013083338/http://jewishweek.org/news/newscontent.php3?artid=3846 |archive-date=13 October 2007}}</ref><ref name=atlantic>{{cite news |title=In a Ruined Country |first=David |last=Samuels |date=1 September 2005 |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2005/09/in-a-ruined-country/304167/ |newspaper=The Atlantic |access-date=27 March 2013 |archive-date=30 August 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830024459/http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/prem/200509/samuels |url-status=live }}</ref> Sharon became prime minister in a [[2001 Israeli prime ministerial election|2001 election]]; he carried out his plan to [[Israeli disengagement from Gaza|unilaterally withdraw]] from the Gaza Strip and spearheaded the construction of the [[Israeli West Bank barrier]],<ref>{{cite news|title=West Bank barrier route disputed, Israeli missile kills 2 |newspaper=USA Today |date=29 July 2004 |url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-07-29-west-bank_x.htm |access-date=1 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020225835/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2004-07-29-west-bank_x.htm |archive-date=20 October 2012}}</ref> ending the Intifada.<ref>See for example: * {{cite news |title=Years of rage |first1=Amos |last1=Harel |first2=Avi |last2=Issacharoff |date=1 October 2010 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/years-of-rage-1.316603 |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=2 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702094014/http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/years-of-rage-1.316603 |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |title=Losing Faith in the Intifada |first=Laura |last=King |date=28 September 2004 |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-sep-28-fg-intifada28-story.html |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=21 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921132644/http://articles.latimes.com/2004/sep/28/world/fg-intifada28 |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A52801-2004Sep26.html |title=From Jenin To Fallujah? |last=Diehl |first=Jackson |date=27 September 2004 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=3 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203212546/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A52801-2004Sep26.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.jcpa.org/text/Amidror-perspectives-2.pdf |title=Winning Counterinsurgency War: The Israeli Experience |last=Amidror |first=Yaakov |website=Strategic Perspectives |publisher=Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=11 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811130134/http://www.jcpa.org/text/Amidror-perspectives-2.pdf |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last=Frisch |first=Hillel |url=http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/perspectives57.html |title=The Need for a Decisive Israeli Victory Over Hamas |date=12 January 2009 |website=Perspectives Papers on Current Affairs |publisher=Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614054502/http://www.biu.ac.il/SOC/besa/perspectives57.html |archive-date=14 June 2012 }} * {{cite web |url=http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA449421 |title=The "Defensive Shield" Operation as a Turning Point in Israel's National Security Strategy |last=Buchris |first=Ofek |date=9 March 2006 |website=Strategy Research Project |publisher=United States Army War College |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=7 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007044643/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&AD=ADA449421 |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50910-2004Jun17.html |title=Israel's Intifada Victory |last=Krauthammer |first=Charles |date=18 June 2004 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=19 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170919235122/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50910-2004Jun17.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3558676,00.html |title=2nd Intifada forgotten |last=Plocker |first=Sever |date=22 June 2008 |work=Ynetnews |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819220413/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3558676,00.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite web |last=Ya'alon |first=Moshe |date=January 2007 |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus64.pdf |title=Lessons from the Palestinian 'War' against Israel |website=Policy Focus |publisher=Washington Institute for Near East Policy |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811130133/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/PolicyFocus64.pdf |archive-date=11 August 2012 }} * {{cite news |date=20 September 2010 |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/1,7340,L-3957131,00.html |title=Letting the IDF win |last=Hendel |first=Yoaz |work=Ynetnews |access-date=12 August 2012 |archive-date=24 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924144858/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/1,7340,L-3957131,00.html |url-status=live }} * {{cite book |author1=Zvi Shtauber |author2=Yiftah Shapir |title=The Middle East strategic balance, 2004–2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7C-ZDXrfOgC&pg=PAPA7 |access-date=12 February 2012 |year=2006 |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-84519-108-5 |page=7 |archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219072213/https://books.google.com/books?id=t7C-ZDXrfOgC&pg=PAPA7 |url-status=live }}</ref> Between 2000 and 2008, 1,063 Israelis, 5,517 Palestinians and 64 foreign citizens were killed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.btselem.org/statistics/fatalities/before-cast-lead/by-date-of-event |title=Fatalities before Operation "Cast Lead" |publisher=B'Tselem |access-date=14 January 2017 |archive-date=20 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180120010413/https://www.btselem.org/statistics/fatalities/before-cast-lead/by-date-of-event |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and a [[2006 Hezbollah cross-border raid|cross-border abduction]] of two Israeli soldiers precipitated the month-long [[Second Lebanon War]].<ref name="UN1701">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8808.doc.htm |title=Security Council Calls for End to Hostilities between Hizbollah, Israel, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 1701 (2006) |website=[[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701]] |date=11 August 2006 |access-date=28 June 2017 |archive-date=30 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090130025538/http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2006/sc8808.doc.htm |url-status=live }} Escalation of hostilities in Lebanon and in Israel since Hizbollah's attack on Israel on 12 July 2006</ref><ref name="HRTZ_Harel">{{cite news |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/hezbollah-kills-8-soldiers-kidnaps-two-in-offensive-on-northern-border-1.192965 |title=Hezbollah kills 8 soldiers, kidnaps two in offensive on northern border |access-date=20 March 2012 |last=Harel |first=Amos |date=13 July 2006 |newspaper=Haaretz |archive-date=13 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513084315/http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/hezbollah-kills-8-soldiers-kidnaps-two-in-offensive-on-northern-border-1.192965 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2007, the Israeli Air Force [[Operation Outside the Box|destroyed]] a nuclear reactor in Syria. In 2008, [[2008 Israel–Hamas ceasefire|a ceasefire]] between [[Hamas]] and Israel collapsed, resulting in the three-week [[Gaza War (2008–2009)|Gaza War]].<ref>{{cite news |first = Jason |last = Koutsoukis |title = Battleground Gaza: Israeli ground forces invade the strip |url = http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/battleground-gaza/2009/01/04/1231003847085.html |work = Sydney Morning Herald |date = 5 January 2009 |access-date = 5 January 2009 |archive-date = 8 January 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090108013919/http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/battleground-gaza/2009/01/04/1231003847085.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name=ravid>{{cite news |last=Ravid |first=Barak |title=IDF begins Gaza troop withdrawal, hours after ending 3-week offensive |newspaper=Haaretz |access-date=20 March 2012 |date=18 January 2009 |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/idf-begins-gaza-troop-withdrawal-hours-after-ending-3-week-offensive-1.268326 |archive-date=17 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817072019/http://www.haaretz.com/news/idf-begins-gaza-troop-withdrawal-hours-after-ending-3-week-offensive-1.268326 |url-status=live }}</ref> In what Israel described as a response to [[List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2012|over a hundred Palestinian rocket attacks]] on southern Israeli cities,<ref name="pound">{{cite news |title=Gaza groups pound Israel with over 100 rockets |first1=Yaakov |last1=Lappin |first2=Tovah |last2=Lazaroff |url=http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Gaza-groups-pound-Israel-with-over-100-rockets |newspaper=The Jerusalem Post |date=12 November 2012 |access-date=27 March 2013 |archive-date=14 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414151101/https://www.jpost.com/Defense/Gaza-groups-pound-Israel-with-over-100-rockets |url-status=live }}</ref> Israel began [[2012 Israeli operation in the Gaza Strip|an operation in the Gaza Strip]] in 2012, lasting eight days.<ref>{{cite news |author=Stephanie Nebehay |date=20 November 2012 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/palestinians-israel-humanitarian-idUSL5E8MK6MG20121120 |title=UN rights boss, Red Cross urge Israel, Hamas to spare civilians |work=Reuters |access-date=20 November 2012 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305052435/http://www.reuters.com/article/palestinians-israel-humanitarian-idUSL5E8MK6MG20121120 |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |title=Hamas leader defiant as Israel eases Gaza curbs |first=Nidal |last=al-Mughrabi |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-israel-hamas-idUSBRE8AD0WP20121124 |publisher=Reuters |date=24 November 2012 |access-date=8 February 2013 |archive-date=14 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114184249/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-israel-hamas-idUSBRE8AD0WP20121124 |url-status=live }} * {{cite news |url=http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Article.aspx?id=291779 |title=Israeli air strike kills top Hamas commander Jabari |work=The Jerusalem Post |access-date=14 November 2012 |archive-date=14 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114141727/http://www.jpost.com/Defense/Article.aspx?id=291779 |url-status=live }}</ref> Israel started another [[2014 Gaza War|operation]] in Gaza following an [[List of Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel in 2014|escalation of rocket attacks]] by Hamas in July 2014.<ref>{{cite news|title=Israel and Hamas Trade Attacks as Tension Rises|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/09/world/middleeast/israel-steps-up-offensive-against-hamas-in-gaza.html|work=The New York Times|date=8 July 2014|access-date=16 February 2017|archive-date=22 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222154524/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/07/09/world/middleeast/israel-steps-up-offensive-against-hamas-in-gaza.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2021, another [[2021 Israel–Palestine crisis|round of fighting]] took place in Gaza and Israel, lasting eleven days.<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel and Hamas agree Gaza truce, Biden pledges assistance |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-official-predicts-ceasefire-soon-israel-gaza-fight-goes-2021-05-19/ |publisher=Reuters |date=21 May 2021 |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=31 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210531014137/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/hamas-official-predicts-ceasefire-soon-israel-gaza-fight-goes-2021-05-19/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

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Due to the immigration of Jewish architects, architecture in Israel has come to reflect different styles. In the early 20th century Jewish architects sought to combine Occidental and Oriental architecture producing buildings that showcase a myriad of infused styles.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eclectic–Modern \ Tel Aviv Museum of Art |url=https://www.tamuseum.org.il/en/exhibition/eclecticmodern/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=tamuseum.org.il |language=en}}</ref> The [[Eclecticism in architecture|eclectic]] style gave way to the modernist [[Bauhaus]] style with the influx of German Jewish architects (among them [[Erich Mendelsohn]]) fleeing [[Nazi persecution of Jews|Nazi persecution]].<ref>{{Cite web |title="Erich Mendelsohn: Berlin – Jerusalem" Photography by Carsten Krohn {{!}} Bauhaus Center Tel Aviv |url=https://bauhaus-center.com/gallery-art-exhibition/erich-mendelsohn-berlin-jerusalem-photography-by-carsten-krohn/ |access-date=2023-10-27 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Erich Mendelsohn |url=https://wis-wander.weizmann.ac.il/about/erich-mendelsohn |access-date=2023-10-27 |website=Weizmann Wonder Wander |language=en}}</ref> The [[White City (Tel Aviv)|White City of Tel Aviv]] is a [[UNESCO Heritage site|UNESCO heritage site]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=White City of Tel-Aviv – the Modern Movement |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1096/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref> Following independence, multiple government projects were commissioned, a grand part built in a brutalist style with heavy emphasis on the use of concrete and acclimatization to the Israel's desert climate.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Constantinoiu |first=Marina |date=2021-04-21 |title=In Tel Aviv, amazing Brutalist architecture hides in plain sight |url=https://www.israel21c.org/in-tel-aviv-amazing-brutalist-architecture-hides-in-plain-sight/ |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=ISRAEL21c |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-01-12 |title=Beyond Bauhaus – The allure of Israeli Brutalism |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/brutally-beautiful-576859 |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

Several novel ideas such as the [[Garden city movement|Garden City]] were implemented Israeli cities; the [[Geddes Plan for Tel Aviv|Geddes plan]] of Tel Aviv became renowned internationally for its revolutionary design and adaptation to the local climate.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sir Patrick Geddes Plan for Tel-Aviv |url=https://magazine.esra.org.il/posts/entry/sir-patrick-geddes.html |access-date=2023-10-22 |website=ESRAmagazine |language=en-gb}}</ref> The design of kibbutzim also came to reflect ideology, such as the planning of the circular kibbutz [[Nahalal]] by [[Richard Kauffmann]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Amir |first1=Eyal |last2=Churchman |first2=Arza |last3=Wachman |first3=Avraham |date=October 2005 |journal=Housing, Theory and Society |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=147–165 |doi=10.1080/14036090510040313 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248979674 |title=The Kibbutz Dwelling: Ideology and Design|s2cid=145220156 }}</ref>

===Media===

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===Sources===

* {{cite book|last=Dieckhoff|first=Alain| title=The Invention of a Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1m_w5J0X7lUC&pg=PA|year=2003|publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-12766-0}}

* {{cite book|last=Avineri|first=Shlomo|author-link =Shlomo Avineri|title=The Making of Modern Zionism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N1UovgAACAAJ&pg=PA|year=2017|publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-09479-0}}

* {{cite book|last=Shimoni| first =Gideon|title=The Zionist ideology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nthtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA|year=1995|publisher=[[University Press of New England]]/[[Brandeis University Press]] |isbn=978-0-87451-703-3}}

* {{cite book |title=Israel's Quest for Recognition and Acceptance in Asia: Garrison State Diplomacy|last=Abadi|first=Jacob|isbn=978-0-7146-5576-5|publisher=Routledge|year=2004}}

* {{cite book|title=The Original Story: God, Israel and the World|last1=Barton|first1=John|last2=Bowden|first2=Julie |author-link=John Barton (theologian)|isbn=978-0-8028-2900-9|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|year=2004}}