Jackfruit: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia


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{{Short description|TreeSpecies inof the Moracae familyplant}}

{{Use Philippine English|date=July 2020}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}

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|genus = Artocarpus

|species = heterophyllus

|authority = [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lam.]]<ref name=lam>Under its accepted name ''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' (then as ''heterophylla'') this species was described in ''Encyclopédie Méthodique, Botanique'' 3: 209. (1789) by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, from a specimen collected by botanist [[Philibert Commerson]]. Lamarck said of the fruit that it was coarse and difficult to digest. {{cite book |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/721644#page/216/mode/1up |title=Larmarck's original description of ''tejas'' |year=1789 |volume=t.3 |quote=On mange la chair de son fruit, ainsi que les noyaux qu'il contient; mais c'est un aliment grossier et difficile à digérer. |access-date=2012-11-23 November 2012 |publisher=Panckoucke;Plomteux }}</ref><ref name=trop1>{{cite web |url=http://legacy.tropicos.org/Name/21300871 |title=Name - !''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' Lam |website=Tropicos |location=Saint Louis, Missouri |publisher=[[Missouri Botanical Garden]] |access-date=2012-11-23 November 2012 }}</ref>

|synonyms =

* ''Artocarpus brasiliensis'' <small>[[Casimiro Gómez Ortega|Ortega]]</small>

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* ''Artocarpus nanca'' <small>[[Francisco Noronha|Noronha]]</small> (''nom inval.'')

* ''Artocarpus philippensis'' <small>Lam.</small>

|synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-0000550491 |title=''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' Lam. |year=2023 |work=World Flora Online |publisher=World Flora Consortium |accessdateaccess-date=3 September 2023 }}</ref><ref name=trop2>{{cite web |url=http://legacy.tropicos.org/Name/21300871?tab=synonyms |title=Name – ''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' Lam. synonyms |website=Tropicos |location=Saint Louis, Missouri |publisher=Missouri Botanical Garden |access-date=2012-11-23 November 2012 }}</ref><ref name=grin>{{GRIN | access-date=2012-11-23 November 2012 }}</ref>

}}

The '''jackfruit''' ('''''Artocarpus heterophyllus''''')<ref name=tba>{{cite web |url=http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Artocarpus%20heterophyllus.htm |title=''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' |publisher=Tropical Biology Association |date=October 2006 |access-date=2012-11-23 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815013508/http://www.tropical-biology.org/research/dip/species/Artocarpus%20heterophyllus.htm |archive-date=2012-08-15 August 2012 }}</ref> is a species of tree in the [[Common fig|fig]], [[mulberry]], and [[breadfruit]] family ([[Moraceae]]).<ref name="Jackfruit">{{cite book |last1=Morton |first1=Julia F. |year=1987 |title= Fruits of warm climates |url=https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/jackfruit_ars.html |location=West Lafayette, Indiana, USA |publisher=Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture |pages=58–64 |ISBN= 0-9610184-1-0 |access-date=19 April 2016 }}</ref> The jackfruit is the largest tree fruit, reaching as much as {{convert|55|kg|abbr=in|-1}} in weight, {{convert|90|cm|abbr=in}} in length, and {{convert|50|cm|abbr=in}} in diameter.<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref name="crfg">{{cite web |url=https://crfg.org/homepage/library/fruitfacts/jackfruit/ |title=Jackfruit Fruit Facts |year=1996 |publisher=California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. |access-date=3 September 2023 }}</ref> A mature jackfruit tree produces some 200 fruits per year, with older trees bearing up to 500 fruits in a year.<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref name=love/> The jackfruit is a [[multiple fruit]] composed of hundreds to thousands of individual flowers, and the fleshy petals of the unripe fruit are eaten.<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref name="npr">{{cite web |last1=Silver |first1=Mark |title=Here's The Scoop On Jackfruit, A Ginormous Fruit To Feed The World |website=NPR |date=May 2014 |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2014/05/01/308708000/heres-the-scoop-on-jackfruit-a-ginormous-fruit-to-feed-the-world |access-date=19 April 2016 }}</ref>

The jackfruit tree is well-suited to tropical [[lowland]]s and is widely cultivated throughout [[tropical regions]] of the world, including [[India]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Sri Lanka]], and the [[rainforests]] of the [[Philippines]], [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Australia]].<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref name="love">{{cite web |url=http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/f_n-19.pdf |title=Jackfruit |publisher= College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa |author=Love, Ken |author2=Paull, Robert E |date=June 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Boning |first=Charles R. |date=2006 |title=Florida's Best Fruiting Plants:Native and Exotic Trees, Shrubs, and Vines |location=Sarasota, Florida |publisher=Pineapple Press, Inc. |page=107 }}</ref><ref name="Elevitch2006">{{cite book |last1=Elevitch |first1=Craig R. |last2=Manner |first2=Harley I. |chapter=''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' (Jackfruit) |editor1-first=Craig R. |editor1-last=Elevitch |title=Traditional Trees of Pacific Islands: Their Culture, Environment, and Use |date=2006 |publisher=Permanent Agriculture Resources |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2Grw4g0-h54C&pg=PT127 |isbn=9780970254450 |page=112 }}</ref>

The ripe fruit is sweet (depending on variety) and is commonly used in desserts. [[Canning|Canned]] green jackfruit has a mild taste and meat-like texture that lends itself to being called "vegetable meat".<ref name=Jackfruit/> Jackfruit is commonly used in [[South Asian cuisine|South]] and [[Southeast Asian cuisine|Southeast Asian]] cuisines.<ref name=janick /><ref name=janick-2>''The encyclopedia of fruit & nuts'', By Jules Janick, Robert E. Paull, pp. 481–485</ref> Both ripe and unripe fruits are consumed. It is available internationally, canned or frozen, and in chilled meals, as are various products derived from the fruit, such as noodles and chips.

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==Etymology and common names==

[[File:Flora Sinensis - Jackfruit.JPG|thumb|upright|Jackfruit tree illustrated from one of the earliest natural history books about China by Jesuit Missionary author [[Michael Boym]] in 1656.]]

The word ''jackfruit'' comes from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] {{lang|pt|jaca}}, which in turn is derived from the [[Malayalam]] language term {{lang|ml-Latn|chakka}} [[:ml:ചക്ക|(ചക്ക)]],<ref name=npr/><ref name=malayalam>{{cite book |last1=Pradeepkumar |first1=T. |last2=Jyothibhaskar |first2=B. Suma |last3=Satheesan |first3=K. N. |date=2008 |editor=Prof. K. V. Peter |title=Management of Horticultural Crops |url={{Google books|UuCWMJjOvYUC |page=PA81 |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |series=Horticultural Science Series |volume=11 |location=New Delhi, India |publisher=New India Publishing |page=81 |isbn=978-81-89422-49-3 |quote=The English name ''jackfruit'' is derived from Portuguese {{lang|pt|jaca}}, which is derived from Malayalam {{lang|ml|chakka}}, }}</ref> when the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] arrived in India at [[Kozhikode]] ([[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]]) on the [[Malabar Coast]] ([[Kerala]]) in 1499. Later the Malayalam name {{lang|ml|ചക്ക}} ({{lang|ml-Latn|chakka}}) was recorded by [[Hendrik van Rheede]] (1678–1703) in the {{lang|la|[[Hortus Malabaricus]]}}, vol. iii in [[Latin]]. [[Henry Yule]] translated the book in Jordanus Catalani's ({{floruit|1321–1330}}) ''Mirabilia descripta: the wonders of the East''.<ref name=jordanus>{{cite book |author=Friar Jordanus |date=1863 |title=Mirabilia descripta: the wonders of the East |url=https://archive.org/stream/mirabiliadescrip00jord#page/13/mode/1up |publisher=[[Hakluyt Society]] |page=13 |access-date=2012-11-23 November 2012 }}</ref> This term is in turn derived from the [[Proto-Dravidian]] root {{lang|dra|kā(y)}} ("fruit, vegetable").<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9i2WeeTjmKwC&q=cakka+&pg=PT352 |title=Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia |first=Franklin |last=Southworth |date=2 August 2004 |publisher=Routledge |via=Google Books |isbn=9781134317769 }}</ref>

The common English name "jackfruit" was used by physician and naturalist [[Garcia de Orta]] in his 1563 book {{lang|pt|[[Colóquios dos simples e drogas da India]]}}.<ref name="oed">''Oxford English Dictionary'', Second Edition, 1989, online edition</ref><ref>{{cite book |year=2000 |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/33/J0003300.html |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition |publisher=Bartleby |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051130162835/http://www.bartleby.com/61/33/J0003300.html |archive-date=2005-11-30 November 2005 }}</ref> Centuries later, botanist [[Ralph Randles Stewart]] suggested it was named after [[William Jack (botanist)|William Jack]] (1795–1822), a Scottish botanist who worked for the [[East India Company]] in [[Bengal]], [[Sumatra]], and [[British Malaya|Malaya]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stewart |first=Ralph R. |author-link=Ralph Randles Stewart |year=1984 |title=How Did They Die? |journal=Taxon |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=48–52 |doi=10.2307/1222028 |jstor=1222028 |url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/149689/1/tax02453.pdf |hdl=2027.42/149689 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

''Nangka'' is another name used in [[Philippine English]]<ref name=Jackfruit/> borrowing from [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] related to {{lang|ceb|nangkà}} in [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]]<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year=1972 |title=Nangkà |encyclopedia=A Dictionary of Cebuano Visayan |url=http://gutenberg.ph/previews/wolff/WCED-complete.pdf#page=776&zoom=auto,-76,270 |last=Wolff |first=John U. |volume=2 |page=698 }}</ref> and in [[Malay language|Malay]], both from the same [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]].<ref name="blusttrusell"/>

==History==

The jackfruit was domesticated independently in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and Southeast Asia, as indicated by the Southeast Asian names which are not derived from the [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] [[root (linguistics)|roots]]. It was probably first [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia#Artocarpus heterophyllus (jackfruit)|domesticated by Austronesians]] in [[Java]] or the [[Malay Peninsula]]. The fruit was later introduced to [[Guam]] via [[Filipinos|Filipino]] settlers when both were part of the [[Spanish East Indies|Spanish Empire]].<ref name="Blench2008-fruit">{{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=Occasional Paper 4: Linguistics, Archaeology and the Human Past |publisher=Indus Project |year=2008 |isbn=9784902325331 |editor1-last=Osada |editor1-first=Toshiki |pages=115–137 |chapter=A history of fruits on the Southeast Asian mainland |editor2-last=Uesugi |editor2-first=Akinori |chapter-url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Archaeology/SE%20Asia/OP4_Blench%20Fruits%20paper%20offprint.pdf }}</ref><ref name="blusttrusell">Blust, Robert; Trussel, Stephen:

* {{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Loans: jackfruit - ''Artocarpus spp.'' |url=https://acd.clld.org/formsets/29865<!--original incarnation at https://www.trussel2.com/ACD/acd-lo_j.htm#29865--> |access-date=2023-07-17 July 2023 |website=Austronesian Comparative Dictionary |publisher=Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology}}

* {{cite journal |year=2013 |title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: A Work in Progress |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265931196 |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=52 |issue=2 |pages=493–523 |doi=10.1353/ol.2013.0016 |s2cid=146739541 |last1=Blust |first1=Robert |last2=Trussel |first2=Stephen }}</ref> It is the [[National symbols of Bangladesh|national fruit of Bangladesh]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jackfruit – National Fruit of Bangladesh |url=https://www.bangladesh.com/blog/jackfruit-national-fruit-of-bangladesh/ |access-date=5 April 2021-04-05 |website=By Bangladesh.com |language=en-US }}</ref> and the state fruit of [[Kerala]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-03-21 March 2018 |title=Jackfruit Declared as Official State Fruit of Kerala; Proposal by the Agriculture Department |url=https://www.india.com/viral/jackfruit-declared-as-official-state-fruit-of-kerala-proposal-by-the-agriculture-department-2956463/ |access-date=2023-01-12 January 2023 |website=India.com |language=en }}</ref> and [[List of Tamil Nadu state symbols|Tamil Nadu]].

== Botanical description ==

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The [[inflorescences]] are formed on the trunk, branches or twigs ([[cauliflory]]). Jackfruit trees are [[Plant reproductive morphology|monoecious]], having both female and male flowers on a tree.<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref name=crfg/> The inflorescences are [[Peduncle (anatomy)|pedunculated]], cylindrical to ellipsoidal or pear-shaped, to about {{convert|10|-|12|cm|in|abbr=in|frac=16}} long and {{convert|5|-|7|cm|in|round=0.5|abbr=in}} wide. Inflorescences are initially completely enveloped in egg-shaped cover sheets which rapidly slough off.

The flowers are small, sitting on a fleshy [[rachis]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=D. K. N. G. |last=Pushpakumara |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/238953941 |title=Floral and Fruit Morphology and Phenology of ''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' Lam. (Moraceae) |journal=Sri Lankan J. Agric. Sci. |volume=43 |year=2006 |pages=82–106 }}</ref> The male flowers are greenish, some flowers are sterile. The male flowers are hairy and the [[perianth]] ends with two {{convert|1|to|1.5|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=64}} membrane. The individual and prominent [[stamen]]s are straight with yellow, roundish anthers. Pollen grains are tiny, around 60 microns in diameter. After the pollen distribution, the stamens become ash-gray and fall off after a few days. Later, all the male inflorescences also fall off. The greenish female flowers, with hairy and tubular perianth, have a fleshy flower-like base. The female flowers contain an ovary with a broad, capitate, or rarely bilobed scar. The blooming time ranges from December until February or March.

===Fruit===

[[File:Jackfruit National fruit of Bangladesh.jpg|alt=Jackfruit tree with fruits|thumb|Jackfruit tree with fruits]]

The ellipsoidal to roundish fruit is a [[multiple fruit]] formed from the fusion of the ovaries of multiple flowers.<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref name=crfg/>The fruits grow on a long and thick stem on the trunk. They vary in size and ripen from an initially yellowish-greenish to yellow, and then at maturity to yellowish-brown. They possess a hard, gummy shell with small pimples surrounded with hard, hexagonal [[tubercle]]s.<ref name=Jackfruit/> The large and variously shaped fruit have a length of {{convert|30|to|100|cm|in|round=5|abbr=in}} and a diameter of {{convert|15|to|50|cm|in|0|abbr=in}} and can weigh up to {{convert|55|kg|lb|abbr=in}} {{ndash}} the largest of all tree-borne fruits.<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref name=crfg/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Herrmann |first=Bridget |last2=Cooper |first2=Lucy |date=11 April 2024-04-11 |title=Jumbo jackfruit harvested at Feluga as demand for the popular vegan, vegetarian meat alternative grows |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-04-11/large-jackfruit-harvested-feluga-farm-vegan-meat-alternative/103692674 |access-date=11 April 2024-04-11 |work=ABC News |language=en-AU }}</ref>

The fruits consist of a fibrous, whitish core ([[rachis]]) about {{convert|5|-|10|cm|in|0|abbr=in}} thick. Radiating from this are many {{convert|10|cm|in|0|adj=mid|sp=us|-long}} individual fruits. They are elliptical to egg-shaped, light brownish [[achene]]s with a length of about {{convert|3|cm|in|abbr=in|frac=8}} and a diameter of {{convert|1.5|to|2|cm|in|abbr=in|frac=16}}.

There may be about 100–500 seeds per fruit.<ref name=Jackfruit/> The seed coat consists of a thin, waxy, parchment-like and easily removable testa (husk) and a brownish, membranous [[Seed#Seed coat|tegmen]]. The [[cotyledon]]s are usually unequal in size, and the [[endosperm]] is minimally present.<ref>{{cite book |author=N. Haq |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k4yc4F3nGwIC |title=Jackfruit ''Artocarpus heterophyllus''; Volume 10 of Fruits for the Future; p 4-11, 72 f. |publisher=International Center for Underutilized Crops |year=2006 |isbn=0854327851}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> An average fruit consists of 27% edible seed coat, 15% edible seeds, 20% white pulp (undeveloped perianth, rags) and bark and 10% core.

The fruit matures during the rainy season from July to August. The bean-shaped achenes of the jackfruit are coated with a firm yellowish [[aril]] (seed coat, flesh), which has an intense sweet taste at maturity of the fruit. The pulp is enveloped by many narrow strands of fiber (undeveloped [[perianth]]), which run between the hard shell and the core of the fruit and are firmly attached to it. When pruned, the inner part (core) secretes a sticky, milky liquid,<ref name=Jackfruit/> which can hardly be removed from the skin, even with soap and water. To clean the hands after "unwinding" the pulp an oil or other solvent is used. For example, street vendors in Tanzania, who sell the fruit in small segments, provide small bowls of [[kerosene]] for their customers to cleanse their sticky fingers. When fully ripe, jackfruit has a strong pleasant aroma, the pulp of the opened fruit resembles the odor of pineapple and banana.<ref name=Jackfruit/>

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}}

The edible raw pulp is 74% water, 23% [[carbohydrates]], 2% [[protein]], and 1% [[fat]] (table). The carbohydrate component is primarily sugars, and is a source of [[dietary fiber]]. In a {{convert|100|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=off|adj=on}} portion, raw jackfruit provides 95 [[calorie]]s, and is a moderate source (15-19% of the [[Daily Value]]) of [[vitamin B6|vitamin B<sub>6</sub>]], [[vitamin C]], and [[potassium in biology|potassium]], with no significant content of other [[micronutrient]]s (table).

The jackfruit is a partial solution for [[food security]] in [[Least Developed Countries|developing countries]].<ref name=npr/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/article/2000106577/venture-in-rare-jackfruit-turns-farmer-s-fortunes-around |title=Venture in rare jackfruit turns farmers' fortunes around |website=Standard Online |publisher=Standard Group Ltd. |author=Mwandambo, Pascal |date=11 March 2014 |access-date=20 December 2016 }}</ref>

== Culinary uses ==

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The [[seed]]s from ripe fruits are edible once cooked, and are said to have a milky, sweet taste often compared to [[Brazil nut]]s. They may be boiled, baked, or roasted.<ref name=Jackfruit/> When roasted, the flavor of the seeds is comparable to chestnuts. Seeds are used as snacks (either by boiling or fire-roasting) or to make desserts. In Java, the seeds are commonly cooked and seasoned with salt as a snack. They are commonly used in curry in India in the form of a traditional lentil and vegetable mix curry. Young leaves are tender enough to be used as a vegetable.<ref name=Jackfruit/>

The flavor of the ripe fruit is comparable to a combination of apple, pineapple, mango, and banana.<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref name=janick>{{cite book |url= https://s3.amazonaws.com/zanran_storage/www.fitoica.com/ContentPages/2476053199.pdf#page=175 |title=The encyclopedia of fruit & nuts |author1=Janick, Jules |author2=Paull, Robert E. |page=155 }}</ref> Varieties are distinguished according to characteristics of the fruit flesh. In [[Indochina]], the two varieties are the "hard" version (crunchier, drier, and less sweet, but fleshier), and the "soft" version (softer, moister, and much sweeter, with a darker gold-color flesh than the hard variety). Unripe jackfruit has a mild flavor and meat-like texture and is used in [[curry]] dishes with spices in many cuisines. The skin of unripe jackfruit must be peeled first, then the remaining jackfruit flesh is chopped into edible portions and cooked before serving. The final chunks resemble prepared [[artichoke heart]]s in their mild taste, color, and flowery qualities.

The cuisines of many Asian countries use cooked young jackfruit.<ref name=janick /> In many cultures, jackfruit is boiled and used in curries as a staple food. The boiled young jackfruit is used in salads or as a vegetable in spicy curries and side dishes, and as fillings for [[cutlet]]s and chops. It may be used by vegetarians as a substitute for meat such as pulled pork, though the protein content of the fruit is not significant. It may be cooked with coconut milk and eaten alone or with meat, [[shrimp]] or smoked pork. In southern India, unripe jackfruit slices are deep-fried to make chips. The jackfruit seeds are also boiled and used in [[Sambar (dish)|sambar]] (stew).

=== Aroma ===

Jackfruit has a distinctive sweet and fruity aroma. In a study of flavour volatiles in five jackfruit cultivars, the main [[Volatile organic compound|volatile compounds]] detected were [[ethyl isovalerate]], propyl isovalerate, butyl isovalerate, isobutyl isovalerate, [[3-methylbutyl acetate]], [[1-butanol]], and [[2-methylbutan-1-ol]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ong |first1=B.T. |last2=Nazimah |first2=S.A.H. |last3=Tan |first3=C.P. |last4=Mirhosseini |first4=H. |last5=Osman |first5=A. |last6=Hashim |first6=D. Mat |last7=Rusul |first7=G. |date=August 2008 |url= https://www.academia.edu/15454779 |title=Analysis of volatile compounds in five jackfruit (''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' L.) cultivars using solid-phase microextraction (SPME) and gas chromatography-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-TOFMS) |journal=[[Journal of Food Composition and Analysis]] |volume=21 |issue=5 |pages=416–422 |doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2008.03.002 }}</ref>

A fully ripe and unopened jackfruit is known to "emit a strong aroma" – perhaps unpleasant<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hargreaves |first1=Dorothy |last2=Hargreaves |first2=Bob |title=Tropical Trees of Hawaii |url=https://archive.org/details/tropicaltreesofh00doro_0 |url-access=registration |year=1964 |publisher=Hargreaves |location=Kailua, Hawaii |page=[https://archive.org/details/tropicaltreesofh00doro_0/page/30 30] |isbn=9780910690027 }}</ref> – with the inside of the fruit described as smelling of pineapple and banana.<ref name="Jackfruit"/> After roasting, the seeds may be used as a commercial alternative to chocolate aroma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spada |first1=Fernanda Papa |display-authors=etal |title=Optimization of Postharvest Conditions To Produce Chocolate Aroma from Jackfruit Seeds |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |date=21 January 2017 |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=1196–1208 |doi=10.1021/acs.jafc.6b04836 |pmid=28110526 |url=http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/68248/1/FINAL%20Paper%20Jack%20I%20-22nd%20Jan%202017.pdf }}</ref>

=== South Asia ===

In Bangladesh, the fruit is consumed on its own. The unripe fruit is used in curry, and the seed is often dried and preserved to be later used in curry.<ref name="The Daily Star"/> In India, two varieties of jackfruit predominate: ''muttomvarikka'' and ''sindoor''. ''Muttomvarikka'' has a slightly hard inner flesh when ripe, while the inner flesh of the ripe ''sindoor'' fruit is soft.<ref>{{cite thesis |title=Morpho-Molecular Characterization of Jackfruit. ''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' |year=2015 |author= Ashwini. A |publisher=Kerala Agricultural University |url=http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/handle/1/5810030062 |type=Thesis }}</ref> In Sri Lanka these two varieties are called ''waraka'' and ''wela'' respectively.

A sweet preparation called ''[[chakkavaratti]]'' (jackfruit jam) is made by seasoning pieces of ''muttomvarikka'' fruit flesh in [[jaggery]], which can be preserved and used for many months. The fruits are either eaten alone or as a side to rice. The juice is extracted and either drunk straight or as a side. The juice is sometimes condensed and eaten as candies. The seeds are either boiled or roasted and eaten with salt and hot chilies. They are also used to make spicy side dishes with rice. Jackfruit may be ground and made into a paste, then spread over a mat and allowed to dry in the sun to create a natural chewy candy.

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In Indonesia and Malaysia, jackfruit is called ''nangka''. The ripe fruit is usually sold separately and consumed on its own, or sliced and mixed with shaved ice as a sweet concoction dessert such as ''[[es campur]]'' and ''[[es teler]]''. The ripe fruit might be dried and fried as ''[[kripik]] nangka'', or jackfruit cracker. The seeds are boiled and consumed with salt, as they contain edible starchy content; this is called ''beton''. Young (unripe) jackfruit is made into curry called ''[[gulai]] nangka'' or stewed called ''[[gudeg]]''.

In the Philippines, unripe jackfruit or ''langka'' is usually cooked in coconut milk and eaten with rice; this is called ''[[ginataang langka]]''.<ref name="fc">{{cite web |title=Ginataang Langka (Jackfruit in Coconut Milk) |url=http://www.filipinochow.com/ginataang-langka-jackfruit-coconut-milk/ |website=Filipino Chow |access-date=19 April 2019 |date=2018-05-20 May 2018 }}</ref> The ripe fruit is often an ingredient in local desserts such as ''[[halo-halo]]'' and the Filipino [[turon (food)|turon]]. The ripe fruit, besides also being eaten raw as it is, is also preserved by storing in syrup or by drying. The seeds are also boiled before being eaten.

Thailand, where it is called kanoon, is a major producer of jackfruit, which are often cut, prepared, and canned in a sugary syrup (or frozen in bags or boxes without syrup) and exported overseas, frequently to North America and Europe.

In Vietnam, jackfruit is used to make jackfruit ''[[chè]]'', a sweet dessert soup, similar to the Chinese derivative ''bubur cha cha''. The Vietnamese also use jackfruit purée as part of pastry fillings or as a topping on ''[[xôi]] ngọt'' (a sweet version of sticky rice portions).

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=== Americas ===

In Brazil, three varieties are recognized: ''jaca-dura'', or the "hard" variety, which has a firm flesh, and the largest fruits that can weigh between 15 and 40&nbsp;kg each; ''jaca-mole'', or the "soft" variety, which bears smaller fruits with a softer and sweeter flesh; and ''jaca-manteiga'', or the "butter" variety, which bears sweet fruits whose flesh has a consistency intermediate between the "hard" and "soft" varieties.<ref>[http://www.seagri.ba.gov.br/jaca.htm General information] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090413050157/http://www.seagri.ba.gov.br/jaca.htm |date=2009-04-13 April 2009 }}, Department of Agriculture, State of Bahia</ref>

=== Africa ===

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== Materials ==

=== Wood and manufacturing ===

The golden yellow timber with good grain is used for building furniture and house construction in India. It is termite-resistant<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bali |first=KALIUDA Gallery |date=2021-01-30 January 2021 |title=All About Jackfruit Wood or Jackwood |url=https://kaliudabali.com/all-about-jackfruit-wood-or-jackwood/ |access-date=2021-09-17 September 2021 |website=KALIUDA Gallery Bali |language=en-US |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003210606/https://kaliudabali.com/all-about-jackfruit-wood-or-jackwood/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and is superior to teak for building furniture. The wood of the jackfruit tree is important in Sri Lanka and is exported to Europe. Jackfruit wood is widely used in the manufacture of furniture, doors and windows, in roof construction,<ref name="Jackfruit"/> and fish sauce barrels.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.baodanang.vn/english/danang-attractions/201402/nam-o-fish-sauce-village-2310357/ |title=Nam O fish sauce village |newspaper=Danang Today |date=2014-02-26 February 2014 |access-date=2015-09-22 September 2015 }}</ref>

The wood of the tree is used for the production of musical instruments. In Indonesia, hardwood from the trunk is carved out to form the barrels of drums used in the ''[[gamelan]]'', and in the Philippines, its soft wood is made into the body of the ''[[kutiyapi]]'', a type of boat [[lute]]. It is also used to make the body of the Indian string instrument ''[[veena]]'' and the drums ''[[mridangam]]'', ''[[thimila]]'', and ''[[kanjira]]''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chauhan |first1=Chandrashekhar |last2=Singru |first2=P. M. |last3=Vathsan |first3=Radhika |date=2021-03-31 March 2021 |title=The effect of the extended bridge on the Timbre of the Sarasvati Veena: a numerical and experimental study |journal=Journal of Measurements in Engineering |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=23–35 |doi=10.21595/jme.2020.21712 |issn=2335-2124 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Cultural significance==

The jackfruit has played a significant role in Indian agriculture for centuries. Archaeological findings in India have revealed that jackfruit was cultivated in India 3000 to 6000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book |date=2011 |editor1-last=Preedy |editor1-first=Victor R. |editor2-last=Watson |editor2-first=Ronald Ross |editor3-last=Patel |editor3-first=Vinood B. |title=Nuts and Seeds in Health and Disease Prevention |url=https://archive.org/details/nutsseedshealthd00pree |url-access=limited |edition=1st |location=Burlington, MA |publisher=Academic Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/nutsseedshealthd00pree/page/n1092 678] |isbn=978-0-12-375689-3 }}</ref> It has also been widely cultivated in Southeast Asia.

The ornate wooden plank called ''avani palaka'', made of the wood of the jackfruit tree, is used as the priest's seat during Hindu ceremonies in Kerala. In Vietnam, jackfruit wood is prized for the making of Buddhist statues in temples<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nhagoviethung.com/viewproduct/1817_gomitnai.htm |title=Gỗ mít nài |publisher=Nhagoviethung.com |access-date=2014-06-17 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403221851/http://nhagoviethung.com/viewproduct/1817_gomitnai.htm |archive-date=3 April 2017-04-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The heartwood is used by [[Thai Forest Tradition|Buddhist forest monastics]] in Southeast Asia as a dye, giving the robes of the monks in those traditions their distinctive light-brown color.<ref>Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study in Northeast Thailand, J.L. Taylor 1993 p. 218</ref>

Jackfruit is the national fruit of Bangladesh,<ref name="The Daily Star">{{cite news |last1=Matin |first1=Abdul |title=A poor man's fruit: Now a miracle food! |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/a-poor-mans-fruit-now-a-miracle-food-41297 |newspaper=The Daily Star |access-date=2015-06-12 June 2015 }}</ref> and the [[Federated state|state]] fruit of the Indian states of [[Kerala]] (which hosts [[Jackfruit Festival|jackfruit festivals]]) and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Subrahmanian |first1=N. |last2=Hikosaka |first2=Shu |last3=Samuel |first3=G. John |last4=Thiagarajan |first4=P. |date=1997 |title=Tamil social history |url={{Google books|PXXsAAAAIAAJ |page= |keywords= |text= |plainurl=yes}} |publisher=Institute of Asian Studies |page=88 |access-date=2010-03-23 March 2010 }}</ref><ref name="The Economictimes">{{cite news |title=Kerala's State fruit! |url= https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/jack-fruit-to-be-keralas-state-fruit-declaration-on-mar-21/articleshow/63344035.cms | access-date=2018-03-17 March 2018 }}</ref>

==Cultivation==

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Some trees carry too many mediocre fruits and these are usually removed to allow the others to develop better to maturity.

Stingless bees such as ''[[Tetragonula iridipennis]]'' are jackfruit pollinators, and so play an important role in jackfruit cultivation.{{citation needed|date=February 2020}} It seems to be the case that pollination results from a three-way mutualism involving the flower, a fungus, and a species of gall midge, ''Clinidiplosis ultracrepidata''. The fungus forms a film over the syncarps which is a food source to both the fly larvae and adults.<ref>{{cite book |title=Super Fly: The Unexpected Lives of the World's Most Successful Insects |first=Jonathan |last=Balcombe |publisher=Penguin Books |page=152 |date=2021 |location=New York |isbn=9780143134275 }}</ref>

===Production and marketing===

In 2017, India produced 1.4&nbsp;million [[tonne]]s of jackfruit, followed by Bangladesh, Thailand, and Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Benjamin Elisha Sawe |title=World Leaders In Jackfruit Production |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/world-leaders-in-jackfruit-production.html |publisher=WorldAtlas |access-date=23 May 2018 |date=25 April 2017 }}</ref>

The marketing of jackfruit involves three groups: producers, traders, and [[wholesale|middlemen]], including wholesalers and retailers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Haq |first=Nazmul |date=2006 |title=Jackfruit: ''Artocarpus heterophyllus'' |location=Southampton, UK |publisher=Southampton Centre for Underutilised Crops |url=http://www.cropsforthefuture.org/publication/Monographs/Jackfruit%20monograph.pdf |page=129 |isbn=978-0-85432-785-0 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005003119/http://www.cropsforthefuture.org/publication/Monographs/Jackfruit%20monograph.pdf |archive-date=5 October 2012-10-05 }}</ref> The [[marketing channel]]s are rather complex. Large farms sell immature fruit to wholesalers, which helps cash flow and reduces risk, whereas medium-sized farms sell the fruit directly to local markets or retailers.

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===Commercial availability===

Outside countries of origin, fresh jackfruit can be found at food markets throughout Southeast Asia.<ref name=Jackfruit/><ref name="gold">{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/apr/23/jackfruit-miracle-crop-climate-change-food-security | title=Jackfruit heralded as 'miracle' food crop | publisher=The Guardian, London, UK | date=23 April 2014 | access-date=17 October 2016 | author=Goldenberg, Suzanne }}</ref> It is also extensively cultivated in the Brazilian coastal region, where it is sold in local markets. It is available canned in sugary syrup, or frozen, already prepared and cut. Jackfruit industries are established in Sri Lanka and Vietnam, where the fruit is processed into products such as flour, noodles, ''[[papad]]'', and ice cream.<ref name=gold/> It is also canned and sold as a vegetable for export.

[[File:15-minutes-easy-vegan-BBQ-Pulled-Jackfruit-burgers -37.jpg|thumb|Vegan "pulled pork" style jackfruit burgers]]

Jackfruit is also widely available year-round, both canned and dried. Dried jackfruit chips are produced by various manufacturers. As reported in 2019, jackfruit became more widely available in US grocery stores, cleaned and ready to cook, as well as in premade dishes or prepared ingredients.<ref name=Forbes>{{cite web | url =https://www.forbes.com/sites/briankateman/2019/08/20/this-ancient-miracle-fruit-is-the-latest-meat-replacement-craze/#1ef039dc7977 | title =This Ancient 'Miracle Fruit' Is The Latest Meat Replacement Craze | work =Forbes |author=Brian Kateman |date=20 August 2019 | access-date =2 September 2019 }}</ref> It is on restaurant menus in preparations such as [[taco]] fillings and vegan versions of [[pulled pork]] dishes.<ref name=Forbes/>

==Invasive species==

In Brazil, the jackfruit can become an [[invasive species]] as in Brazil's [[Tijuca Forest]] National Park in [[Rio de Janeiro]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Danger or delight? Uphill battle for Brazil's huge jackfruit |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Lifestyle/wireStory/danger-delight-uphill-battle-brazils-huge-jackfruit-76182430 |website=ABC News |language=en }}</ref> or at the Horto Florestal in neighbouring [[Niterói]]. The Tijuca is mostly an artificial [[secondary forest]], whose planting began during the mid-nineteenth century; jackfruit trees have been a part of the park's flora since it was founded.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

The species has expanded excessively because its fruits, which naturally fall to the ground and open, are eagerly eaten by small mammals, such as the [[common marmoset]] and [[coati]]. The seeds are then dispersed by these animals, spreading jackfruit trees that compete for space with native tree species. The supply of jackfruit has allowed the marmoset and coati populations to expand. Since both prey opportunistically on bird eggs and nestlings, the increases in marmoset and coati populations are detrimental to local birds.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}