Judaeo-Spanish: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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| imagecaption = '''''Judeoespañol''''' in [[Solitreo]] and [[Rashi script]]s

| pronunciation = {{IPA|lad|dʒuˈðeo‿spaˈɲol||Lad-judeo-español.ogg}}{{efn|Pronounced {{IPA|lad|dʒu-, ʒu-|}}, {{IPA|lad|-ˈðeo-, -ˈdeo-, -ˈðeu-, -ˈdeu-|}}, {{IPA|lad|-(e)spa-, -(e)ʃpa-|}}, {{IPA|lad|-ˈɲol, -ˈɲoɫ, -ˈnjol, -ˈnjoɫ|}} in different dialects.}}

| states = [[Spain]], [[Israel]], [[Turkey]], [[Greece]] (12 reported 2017), [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (42 ~~reported~~as of ~~2018~~2022), [[~~Brazil~~Morocco]] ([[Haketia|Ḥaketía]] dialect), [[Brazil]] [[Haketia|Ḥaketía]] dialect), Algeriia ([[Tetuani Ladino|Tetuani]] Dialect)

| region = [[Mediterranean Basin]] (''native region''), formerly also the Americas

| ethnicity = [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardic Jews]]

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'''Judaeo-Spanish''' or '''Judeo-Spanish''' (autonym {{lang|lad-Latn|djudeoespanyol}}, [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew script]]: {{Script/Hebr|{{lang|lad-Hebr|גﬞודﬞיאו־איספאנייול|rtl=yes}}}}),<ref name="Lekute Tefilot">{{cite book|last1=Koen|first1=Hajim Mordehaj|title=ЛЕКУТЕ ТЕФИЛОТ (ОРАСJОНИС ЕСКУЖИДАС)|date=1927|location=Belgrade|language=lad}}</ref> also known as '''Ladino''', is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] derived from [[Old Spanish]].

Originally spoken in Spain, and then after the [[Alhambra Decree|Edict of Expulsion]] spreading through the [[Ottoman Empire]] (the [[Balkans]], [[Turkey]], [[West Asia]], and [[North Africa]]) as well as [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Kingdom of the Netherlands|the Netherlands]], [[Morocco]], and [[Kingdom of England|England]], it is today spoken mainly by [[Sephardic Jews|Sephardic minorities]] in more than 30 countries, with most speakers residing in [[Israel]].<ref name="Peim">{{cite web|last1=Peim |first1=Benjamin |title=Ladino Lingers on in Brooklyn – Barely |url=http://www.jpost.com/Magazine/Features/Ladino-lingers-on-in-Brooklyn-barely |website=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=16 April 2009 |access-date=12 August 2017}}</ref> Although it has no official status in any country, it has been acknowledged as a [[minority language]] in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], Israel, and France. In 2017, it was formally recognised by the [[Royal Spanish Academy]].<ref name=rae>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/01/spain-honours-ladino-language-of-jewish-exiles |title=Spain honours Ladino language of Jewish exiles |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=1 August 2017 |first=Sam |last=Jones}}</ref>

The core [[vocabulary]] of Judaeo-Spanish is [[Old Spanish]], and it has numerous elements from the other old [[Romance languages]] of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]: [[Aragonese language|Old Aragonese]], [[Asturleonese languages|Asturleonese]], [[Old Catalan]], [[Galician-Portuguese]], and [[Andalusi Romance]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=El desarollo histórico del judeoespañol |language=es |trans-title=The historical development of Judeo-Spanish |last=Minervini |first=Laura |date=2006 |journal=Revista Internacional de Lingüística Iberoamericana}}</ref> The language has been further enriched by [[Ottoman Turkish]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] vocabulary, such as [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Aramaic]], and [[Arabic]]—especially in the domains of [[religion]], [[law]], and [[spirituality]]—and most of the vocabulary for [[Modern era|new and modern]] concepts has been adopted through [[French language|French]] and [[Italian language|Italian]]. Furthermore, the language is influenced to a lesser degree by other local languages of the Balkans, such as [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], and [[Serbo-Croatian]].<ref name="Papo" />

Historically, the [[Rashi script]] and its cursive form [[Solitreo]] have been the main orthographies for writing Judaeo-Spanish. However, today it is mainly written with the Latin alphabet, though some other [[alphabet]]s such as Hebrew and Cyrillic are still in use. Judaeo-Spanish has been known also by other names, such as: {{lang|lad-Latn|Español}} ({{lang|lad-Latn|Espanyol, Spaniol, Spaniolish, Espanioliko}}), {{lang|lad-Latn|Judió}} ({{lang|lad-Latn|Judyo, Djudyo}}) or {{lang|lad-Latn|Jidió}} ({{lang|lad-Latn|Jidyo, Djidyo}}), {{lang|lad-Latn|Judesmo}} ({{lang|lad-Latn|Judezmo, Djudezmo}}), {{lang|lad-Latn|Sefaradhí}} ({{lang|lad-Latn|Sefaradi}}) or {{lang|lad-Latn-015|Ḥaketía}} (in North Africa).<ref name="Thessaloniki Museum" /> In Turkey, and formerly in the Ottoman Empire, it has been traditionally called {{lang|tr|Yahudice}} in [[Turkish language|Turkish]], meaning the 'Jewish language.' In Israel, Hebrew speakers usually call the language {{lang|lad-Latn-IL|Ladino}}, {{lang|lad-Latn-IL|Espanyolit}} or {{lang|lad-Latn-IL|Spanyolit}}.

Judaeo-Spanish, once the Jewish [[lingua franca]] of the [[Adriatic Sea]], the Balkans, and the Middle East, and renowned for its rich literature, especially in [[Salonika]], today is under serious threat of [[language death|extinction]]. Most [[First language|native speakers]] are elderly, and the language is not transmitted to their children or grandchildren for various reasons; consequently, all Judeo-Spanish-speaking communities are undergoing a [[language shift]]. In 2018, four native speakers in Bosnia were identified<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Bosnians who speak medieval Spanish |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20181017-the-bosnians-who-speak-medieval-spanish |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> however, two of them have since died, David Kamhi in 2021<ref>{{Cite web |title=In memoriam DAVID KAMHI |url=https://www.unsa.ba/en/novosti/memoriam-david-kamhi |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=University of Sarajevo |language=en}}</ref> and Moris Albahari in late 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-22 |title=Bosnian Jews mourn Moris Albahari, one of Sarajevo's last Ladino speakers |url=https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/article-723030 |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en}}</ref> In some [[expatriate]] communities in [[Spain]], [[Latin America]], and elsewhere, there is a threat of assimilation by modern Spanish. It is experiencing, however, a minor revival among Sephardic communities, especially in [[Sephardic music|music]].

== Name ==

[[File:Epoca_1902_Issue.jpg|thumb|left|A 1902 Issue of ''[[La Epoca (Ladino newspaper)|La Epoca]]'', a Judeo-Spanish newspaper from Salonica ([[Thessaloniki]]) during the [[Ottoman Empire]]]]

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<ref>{{Cite book |title=Dictionnaire du judéo-espagnol (French Edition) (French) |last=Nehama |first=Joseph |year=1977}}</ref> The 1903 Hebrew–Judeo-Spanish [[Haggadah]] entitled "{{lang|he-latn|Seder Haggadah shel pesaḥ ʿim pitron be-lashon sefaradi}}" ({{lang|he|סדר הגדה של פסח עם פתרון בלשון ספרדי}}), from the Sephardic community of [[Livorno]], Italy, refers to the language used for explanation as the ''Sefaradi'' language.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/digital/collection/p16786coll3/id/278 |title=Cover |website=digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu}}</ref> The rare Judeo-Spanish-language textbook entitled {{lang|lad-latn|Nuevo Silibaryo Espanyol}}, published in Salonica in 1929, referred to the language as {{lang|lad-latn|Espanyol}} and {{lang|lad-latn|lingua Djudeo-Espanyola}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu/digital/collection/p16786coll3/id/3595/rec/5 |title=Cover |website=digitalcollections.lib.washington.edu}}</ref>

The language is also called ''Judeo-Espanyol'',{{efn|group=note|Speakers use different orthographical conventions depending on their social, educational, national and personal backgrounds, and there is no uniformity in spelling although some established conventions exist. The [[exonym and endonym|endonym]] ''Judeo-Espagnol'' is also spelled as ''Cudeo-Espanyol'', ''Djudeo-Espagnol'', ''Djudeo-Espanyol'', ''Dschudeo-Espanjol'', ''Dzhudeo-Espanyol'', ''Džudeo-Espanjol'', ''Dzsudeo-Eszpanyol'' (Hungary), ''Dżudeo-Espańol'', ''Giudeo-Espagnol'' or ''Giudeo-Espaneol'' (Italy), ''Ġudeo-Espanjol'', ''Ǧudéo-Españól'', ''Judeo-Espaniol'', ''Ĵudeo-Español'' and ''Judeo-Espanýol'', ''Tzoudeo-Espaniol'' (Greece), ''Xhudeo-Espanjol''. See the infobox for parallel spellings in scripts other than Latin.}} ''Judeoespañol'',<ref name="DRAE">[https://dle.rae.es/?id=MZfAhkl Entry "judeoespañol, la"], in the ''[[Diccionario de la Real Academia Española]]'' (DRAE). Retrieved on 1 June 2019.</ref> ''Sefardí'', ''Judío'', and ''Espanyol'' or ''Español sefardita''; ''[[Haketia]]'' (from {{lang-ar|حكى|translit=ḥakà}} 'tell') refers to the dialect of North Africa, especially [[Morocco]]. Judeo-Spanish has also been referred to as ''Judesmo'' (also ''Judezmo, Djudesmo'' or ''Djudezmo'').<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/ladino-today/ |title=Ladino Today {{!}} My Jewish Learning |work=My Jewish Learning |access-date=2018-10-05 |language=en-US}}</ref> The dialect of the [[Oran (department)|Oran area of Algeria]] was called ''[[Tetuani]]'' after the Moroccan city of [[Tétouan]] since many Orani Jews came from there. In Israel, the language is known as ''Spanyolit'' or ''Espanyolit''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=Rafael D. |title=Judeo-Romance varieties |journal=Lexicographica |date=28 August 2018 |volume=33 |issue=2017 |pages=321–358 |doi=10.1515/lex-2017-0016 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/~~327599741_Judeo-Romance_varieties~~327599741 |access-date=29 July 2024}}</ref>{{rp|p=325}} The names ''Djidio'', ''Kasteyano Muestro'', and ''Spanyol de mozotros'' have also been proposed to refer to the language;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Attig |first1=Remy |title=Did the Sephardic Jews Speak Ladino? |journal=Bulletin of Spanish Studies |date=September 2012 |volume=89 |issue=6 |pages=831–838 |doi=10.1080/14753820.2012.712320 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14753820.2012.712320 |access-date=28 July 2024}}</ref> regional names to refer to the language include ''kastiyano viejo'', ''sepharadit'', ''ekseris romeka'', ''yahudije'', and ''musevije''.<ref name="garjose"/>{{rp|p=98}}

An entry in ''[[Ethnologue]]'' claims, "The name 'Judesmo' is used by Jewish linguists and Turkish Jews and American Jews; 'Judeo-Spanish' by Romance philologists; 'Ladino' by laymen, initially in Israel; 'Haketia' by Moroccan Jews; 'Spanyol' by some others."<ref name=e25/> That does not reflect the historical usage. In the Judaeo-Spanish press of the 19th and 20th centuries the native authors referred to the language almost exclusively as {{lang|lad-latn|Espanyol}}, which was also the name that its native speakers spontaneously gave to it for as long as it was their primary spoken language. More rarely, the bookish ''Judeo-Espanyol'' has also been used since the late 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Death of a language: The history of Judeo-Spanish |last=Harris |first=Tracy |publisher=University of Delaware Press |year=1994 |location=Newark, DE}}</ref>

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There was a mutual influence with the [[Judaeo-Portuguese]] of the [[Portuguese Jews]].

Contrast Judaeo-Spanish ''{{Wikt-lang|lad|daínda}}'' ('still') with Portuguese ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|ainda}}'' (Galician ''{{Wikt-lang|gl|ainda}}'' or ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|aínda}}'', Asturian ''{{Wikt-lang|ast|aína}}'' or ''{{Wikt-lang|ast|enaína}}'') and Spanish ''{{Wikt-lang|es|aún}}'' or the initial consonants in Judaeo-Spanish ''{{Wikt-lang|lad|fija}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|lad|favla}}'' ('daughter,' 'speech'), Portuguese ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|filha}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|pt|fala}}'' Galician ''{{Wikt-lang|gl|filha}}'' or ''{{Wikt-lang|gl|filla}}, ''{{Wikt-lang|gl|fala}}'', Asturian ''{{Wikt-lang|ast|fía}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|ast|fala}}'', Aragonese ''{{Wikt-lang|an|filla}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|an|fabla}}'', Catalan ''{{Wikt-lang|ca|filla}}''), Spanish ''{{Wikt-lang|es|hija}}'', ''{{Wikt-lang|es|habla}}''. ''It sometimes varied with dialect, as in Judaeo-Spanish popular songs, both {{Wikt-lang|lad|fijo}} and {{Wikt-lang|lad|hijo}} ('son') are found.

The Judaeo-Spanish pronunciation of ''s'' as "{{IPA|[ʃ]}}" before a "k" sound or at the end of certain words (such as ''{{Wikt-lang|lad|seis}}'', pronounced {{IPA|[seʃ]}}, for 'six') is shared with Portuguese (as spoken in Portugal, most of Lusophone Asia and Africa, and in a plurality of Brazilian varieties and registers with either partial or total forms of coda |S| palatalization) but not with Spanish.

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===Turkish===

The majority of Judaeo-Spanish speaking people resided in the [[Ottoman Empire]], although a large minority on the northern Coast of [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] existed. As such, words of Turkish origin were incorporated into the local dialect of the language. Examples include {{lang|lad|emrenear}} ('rejoice') from Turkish {{lang|tr|imrenmek}}.

Some of these words themselves were inherited into Turkish from Arabic or Persian. Examples include {{lang|lad|bilbiliko}} ('nightingale'), from Persian (via Turkish) {{lang|fa-latn|bülbül}} and {{lang|lad|gam}} ('sorrow, anxiety, grief') from Arabic (via Persian then Turkish) {{lang|ar-latn|ḡamm}}.

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===French===

Due to the influence of the [[Alliance Israélite Universelle]] in the westernization and modernization of Judeao-Spanish speaking communities, many words of French origin were adopted. Most of these words refer to Western European innovations and introductions. Examples include: {{lang|lad|abazur}} ('lampshade'), from French {{lang|fr|abat-jour}}, {{lang|lad|fardate}} ('apply makeup'), from French {{lang|fr|se farder}}, and {{lang|lad|fusil}} ('gun') from French {{lang|fr|fusil}}.<ref name=":1" /> Some French political and cultural elements are present in Judeao-Spanish. For example, {{lang|lad|ir al Bismark}} ('to go to the Bismark') was a phrase used in some Judeao-Spanish communities in the late 20th century to mean 'to go to the restroom', referring to the [[Chancellor of Germany|German Chancellor]], [[Otto von Bismarck]] (an unpopular figure in France), as a euphemism for toilet.<ref name=":1" />

===Arabic===

Because of the large number of Arabic words in Spanish generally, it is not always clear whether some of these words were introduced before the Expulsion or adopted later; modern Spanish replaced some of these loans with [[Latinism]]s after the [[Reconquista]], where Judaeo-Spanish speakers had no motivation to do so. Some Arabic words were borrowed via Turkish or Persian.

[[Haketia]], the variety of Judaeo-Spanish spoken in the [[Maghreb]], has substantial influence from [[Moroccan Arabic|Moroccan]] and [[Algerian Arabic]], as well as local [[Amazigh languages]]. The varieties of Judaeo-Spanish spoken in the [[Levant]] and [[Egypt]] have some influence from [[Levantine Arabic]] and [[Egyptian Arabic]] respectively.

===Other source languages===

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==Varieties==

[[File:Idioma sefardí.PNG|thumb|Judaeo-Spanish speaking communities in the Mediterranean]]

A common way of dividing Judaeo-Spanish is by splitting first [[Haketia]], or "Western Judeao-Spanish", from other varieties, collectively referred to as "Eastern Judeao-Spanish".<ref>{{Cite web |title=EL JUDEOESPAÑOL O LADINO {{!}} Sefardiweb |url=http://www.proyectos.cchs.csic.es/sefardiweb/node/10 |access-date=2023-04-25 |website=www.proyectos.cchs.csic.es}}</ref> Within Eastern Judeao-Spanish, further division is made based on city of origin.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Judeo-Spanish (Ladino) and Its Deal with Dialects |url=https://lynnchenel.com/deal-with-ladino-dialects/ |access-date=2023-04-25 |website=Lynn Chenel |language=en-US}}</ref> Differences between varieties usually include [[phonology]] and [[lexicon]]. The dialect spoken in the [[North Macedonia|Macedonian]] city of [[Bitola]] (traditionally referred to as Monastir) has relatively many lexical differences as compared with other varieties of Judeao-Spanish.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Kohen |first1=Elli |title=Ladino-English/English-Ladino Concise Encyclopedic Dictionary (Judeo-Spanish) |last2=Kohen-Gordon |first2=Dahlia |publisher=Hippocene Books |year=2000 |isbn=0-7818-0658-5 |location=New York}}</ref> An example of this can be seen is the word for 'carriage'. In many dialects, such as those that were spoken in [[Istanbul]] and [[Thessaloniki]], ''araba'' is used, a loanword from Arabic via Turkish, while the Monastir dialect uses ''karrose'', possibly from Italian.<ref name=":1" />

Aldina Quintana split Eastern Ladino into three groups:

1. ''Grupo noroccidental'' (Northwest group), centered around [[Sarajevo]] (Bosnia). It also includes the dialects of [[Bitola]] (Macedonia) and [[Kastoria]] (Greece). The most distinct characteristics of this group are: the reduction of {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} into {{IPA|/ɾ/}} and the conservation of {{angle bracket|rd}} as in {{angle bracket|gordo}}.

2. '' Grupo nororiental'' (Northeast group) that includes most of (northern) Bulgaria and Romania including [[Sofia]] and [[Bucharest]]. It represented an intermediate state between the other varieties: the reduction of {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/ɾ/}} into {{IPA|/ɾ/}}, but the metathesis of {{angle bracket|rd}} into {{angle bracket|dr}} as in {{angle bracket|godro}}.

3. ''Grupo suroriental'' (Southeast group) that included the main Sephardic cultural hubs of [[Salonika]] (Greece) and [[Istanbul]] (Turkiye), as well as the remainder of Anatolia, and Eastern Greece. The varieties of this group maintain the gradient in difference between {{IPA|/e : i/}} and {{IPA|/o : u/}} in the final position, as well as maintaining a difference between {{IPA|/r/ : /ɾ/}}. The metathesis of {{angle bracket|rd}} into {{angle bracket|dr}} is also present.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Quintana |first1=Aldina |title=Geografía lingüística del judeoespañol. Estudio sincrónico y diacrónico |date=January 2006 |isbn=978-3-0351-0275-8 }}</ref>

While unsorted, the variety of spoken in Judeo-Spanish in [[Italy]] ([[Venice]], [[Trieste]], [[Ferrera]]) and [[Budapest]] more closely followed the Northwest group. Egyptian Judeo-Spanish ([[Alexandria]], [[Cairo]]) followed more the patterns of the Southeast Group. Levantine Judeo-Spanish ([[Jerusalem]], [[Jaffa]], [[Hebron]]) and [[Rhodes|Rhodesli]] Judeo-Spanish represented intermediate states, more similar to the Northeast group. Although Levantine Judeo-Spanish phonology and syntax, especially its usage of {{IPA|[ħ]}}, {{IPA|[ʕ]}}, {{IPA|[ʔ]}}, and {{IPA|[h]}} was unique enough to be defined separately.

Differences between varieties usually include [[phonology]] and [[lexicon]]. The dialect spoken in the [[North Macedonia|Macedonian]] city of [[Bitola]] (traditionally referred to as Monastir) has relatively many lexical differences as compared with other varieties of Judeao-Spanish.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Kohen |first1=Elli |title=Ladino-English/English-Ladino Concise Encyclopedic Dictionary (Judeo-Spanish) |last2=Kohen-Gordon |first2=Dahlia |publisher=Hippocene Books |year=2000 |isbn=0-7818-0658-5 |location=New York}}</ref> An example of this can be seen is the word for 'carriage'. In many dialects, such as those that were spoken in [[Istanbul]] and [[Thessaloniki]], ''araba'' is used, a loanword from Arabic via Turkish, while the Monastir dialect uses ''karrose'', possibly from Italian.<ref name=":1" />

==Phonology==

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=== Hebrew script ===

Printed works in Judæo-Spanish use the [[Rashi script]], whereas the handwritten language uses a cursive form of the Hebrew alphabet called [[Solitreo]]. In the Hebrew script, a silent <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|א>}}}} must precede word-initial vowels. Moreover, it is necessary to separate adjacent vowels with <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|א>}}}} or <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}}. Whereas <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|א>}}}} can separate any pair of vowels, <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}} can only separate front vowels ({{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/e/}}, both represented by <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}}) from adjacent vowels. Furthermore, <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}} cannot separate diphthongs that include a non-syllabic {{IPA|/u/}} ({{IPA|[w]}}).

Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords and morphemes (except those that were borrowed indirectly through other languages) are spelled according to [[Hebrew spelling|Hebrew orthography]]. The rest of the language's lexicon is spelled as illustrated in the following table:

{| class="wikitable"

|+Table of ~~Orthography~~orthography

![[Grapheme]]

!Name

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!Notes

|{{script/Hebr|א}}

|א

|{{script/Hebr|אָלֶף}}

* As a consonant (intervocalically and word-initially before a vowel), silent

* As a vowel, {{ipa|/a/}}

* A silent consonantal <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|א>}}}} must precede word-initial vowels. It is also necessary to separate consecutive vowels with a consonantal <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|א>}}}} or <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}}.

* As a consonant, <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|א>}}}} can separate any pair of vowels.

* As a vowel, <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|א>}}}} cannot represent {{IPA|/a/}} word-finally (see {{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|ה}}}}).

|{{script/Hebr|בּ}}

|{{script/Hebr|בֵּית}}

|{{IPA|/b/}}

|Only appears in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords. In native words, the ''[[dagesh]]'' is unnecessary.

|{{script/Hebr|ב}}

|ב

|{{script/Hebr|בֵית}}

* {{IPA|/b/}} in native words

* {{IPA|/v/}} in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords

* Cannot represent {{IPA|/v/}} in native words (see {{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|ב׳}}}}).

* Represents an etymological {{IPA|/β/}} in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

|({{Script/Hebr|ב׳}}) {{Script/Hebr|בﬞ}}

~~|ב׳~~

|{{script/Hebr|בֵית רָפֶה}}

|{{IPA|/v/}}

|{{script/Hebr|ג}}

|ג

|{{script/Hebr|גִימֶל}}

|{{IPA|/g/}}

|({{Script/Hebr|ג׳}}) {{Script/Hebr|גﬞ}}

~~|ג׳~~

|{{script/Hebr|גִﬞימֶל}}

~~|גִ׳ימֶל~~

|{{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}

|{{script/Hebr|ג׳׳}}

|{{script/Hebr|גִ׳׳ימֶל}}

|{{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}

|{{script/Hebr|ד}}

|ד

|{{script/Hebr|דָּלֶת}}

|{{IPA|/d/}}

|({{Script/Hebr|ד׳}}) {{Script/Hebr|דﬞ}}

~~|ד׳~~

|{{script/Hebr|דָּלֶת רָפֶה}}

|{{IPA|/ð~ð̞/}}

|Most dialects merge {{IPA|/ð~ð̞/}} with {{IPA|/d/}}. Therefore, Judæo-Spanish orthography does not always distinguish the two phonemes.

|{{script/Hebr|ה}}

|ה

|{{script/Hebr|הֵא}}

~~|הֵא‎~~

* As a consonant, {{IPA|/h/}} (sometimes silent in unstressed syllables and word-finally)

* As a vowel (word-finally), {{IPA|/a/}}

* Consonantal {{IPA|/h/}} only appears in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

* {{IPA|/a/}} is represented by <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|ה>}}}} word-finally.

|{{script/Hebr|ו}}

|ו

|{{script/Hebr|וָאו}}

* As a consonant, {{IPA|/v/}} in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords

* As a vowel, {{IPA|/u/}} or {{IPA|/o/}}

* In Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords, consonantal <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|ו>}}}} represents an etymological {{IPA|/w/}}.

* In didactic works, authors may add a ''[[Kubutz and shuruk|shurúq]]'' to the letter (<{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|וּ>}}}}) to represent {{IPA|/u/}}, thereby distinguishing {{IPA|/u/}} from {{IPA|/o/}}.

|{{script/Hebr|ז}}

|ח

|{{script/Hebr|זַיִן}}

~~|חֵית~~

|{{IPA|/ħz/}}

~~|Most dialects merge /ħ/ with /x/.~~

|({{Script/Hebr|ז׳}}) {{Script/Hebr|זﬞ}}

|{{script/Hebr|זַיִן רָפֶה}}

|{{IPA|/ʒ/}}

|{{script/Hebr|ח}}

|{{script/Hebr|חֵית}}

|{{IPA|/ħ/}}

|Most dialects merge {{IPA|/ħ/}} with {{IPA|/x/}}.

|{{script/Hebr|ט}}

|ט

|{{script/Hebr|טֵית}}

|{{IPA|/t/}}

|In Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords, <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|ט>}}}} represents an etymologically pharyngealized {{IPA|/t/}}.

|{{script/Hebr|י}}

|י

|{{script/Hebr|יוֹד}}

* As a consonant (when adjacent to another <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}}), {{IPA|/j/}}

* As a vowel, {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/e/}}

* When adjacent to a front vowel ({{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/e/}}, both represented by <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}}), {{IPA|/j/}} is represented by a single <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}} (see {{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|יי}}}}).

* In didactic works, authors may add a ''[[Hiriq|ḥiríq]]'' to the letter (~~<יִ‎>~~{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|יִ}}}}) to represent {{IPA|/i/}}, thereby distinguishing {{IPA|/i/}} from {{IPA|/e/}}.

|{{script/Hebr|יי}}

|{{script/Hebr|יוֹד ~~ג׳׳יפ׳טי~~ג׳׳יפﬞטי}}

|{{IPA|/j/}}

|{{IPA|/j/}} is represented by a double <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|יי>}}}}, except when it is adjacent to a front vowel ({{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/e/}}, both represented by <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}}).

|{{script/Hebr|כּ}}

|{{script/Hebr|כַּף}}

|{{IPA|/k/}}

|Only appears in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

|{{script/Hebr|כ}}

|כ

|{{script/Hebr|כַף}}

|{{IPA|/x/}}

|Only appears in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

|{{script/Hebr|ל}}

|ל

|{{script/Hebr|לָמֶד}}

|{{IPA|/l/}}

|{{script/Hebr|מ}}

|מ

|{{script/Hebr|מֵם}}

|{{IPA|/m/}}

|{{script/Hebr|נ}}

|נ

|{{script/Hebr|נוּן}}

|{{IPA|/n/}}

|{{script/Hebr|ני}}

* Before <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}}, usually {{IPA|/ɲ/}}, though sometimes {{IPA|/n+j/}}

* {{IPA|/n+i/}} otherwise

* Though <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|ני>}}}} is usually a digraph, as in {{script/Hebr|אי'''ני'''~~יב׳י~~יבﬞי}} ''i'''ny'''eve'' 'snow,' it may also be a sequence of two letters, as in ~~אינג׳י~~{{script/Hebr|אינגﬞי'''ני'''ירו}} ''indje'''ni'''ero'' 'engineer.' When it precedes <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}}, it is typically a digraph.

* When it precedes a front vowel ({{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/e/}}, both represented by <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|י>}}}}), {{IPA|/ɲ/}} is represented by the digraph <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|ני>}}}} (see {{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|ניי}}}}).

|{{script/Hebr|ניי}}

* Before central and back vowels ({{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/o/}}, and {{IPA|/u/}}), usually {{IPA|/ɲ/}}, though sometimes {{IPA|/n+j/}}

* {{IPA|/ɲe/}} otherwise

* Though <{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|ניי>}}}} is usually a trigraph, as in {{script/Hebr|א'''ניי'''ו}} ''a'''ny'''o'' 'year,' it may also represent a sequence of two phonemes, {{IPA|/n+j/}} or {{IPA|/ɲ+e/}}, as in ~~ג׳ו~~{{script/Hebr|גﬞו'''ניי'''ו}} ''dju'''ni'''o'' 'June' or {{script/Hebr|אי'''ניי'''טו}} ''i'''ny'''eto'' 'grandson,' respectively. When it precedes central and back vowels ({{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}), it is typically a trigraph.

|{{script/Hebr|ס}}

|ס

|{{script/Hebr|סָמֶךְ}}

|{{IPA|/s/}}

|{{script/Hebr|ע}}

|ע

|{{script/Hebr|עַיִן}}

|silent

|Represents an etymological {{IPA|/ʕ/}} in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

|{{script/Hebr|פּ}}

|{{script/Hebr|פֵּא}}

|{{IPA|/p/}}

|Only appears in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords. In native words, the ''[[dagesh]]'' is unnecessary.

|{{script/Hebr|פ}}

|פ

|{{script/Hebr|פֵא}}

* {{IPA|/p/}} in native words

* {{IPA|/f/}} in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords

|Cannot represent {{IPA|/f/}} in native words (see פ׳{{angle bracket|{{script/Hebr|פﬞ}}}}).

|({{Script/Hebr|פ׳}}) {{Script/Hebr|פﬞ}}

~~|פ׳~~

|{{script/Hebr|פֵא רָפֶה}}

|{{IPA|/f/}}

|{{script/Hebr|צ}}

|צ

|{{script/Hebr|צָדִי}}

|{{IPA|/t͡s/}}

* Only appears in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

* Some speakers merge {{IPA|/t͡s/}} with {{IPA|/s/}}.

|{{script/Hebr|ק}}

|ק

|{{script/Hebr|קוֹף}}

~~|קוֹף‎~~

|{{IPA|/k/}}

|Represents an etymological {{IPA|/q/}} in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

|{{script/Hebr|ר}}

|ר

|{{script/Hebr|רֵיש}}

|{{IPA|/ɾ/}}

|{{script/Hebr|ש}}

|ש

|{{script/Hebr|שין}}

|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}

|{{script/Hebr|שׁ}}

|{{script/Hebr|שִׁין}}

|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}

|Only appears in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

|{{script/Hebr|שׂ}}

|{{script/Hebr|שִׂין}}

~~|שִׂין‎~~

|{{IPA|/s/}}

|Only appears in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords, wherein it represents an etymological {{IPA|/ɬ/}}.

|{{script/Hebr|ת}}

|ת

|{{script/Hebr|תָו}}

~~|תָו‎~~

|{{IPA|/t/}}

|Only appears in Hebrew and Aramaic loanwords.

|}'''Notes:'''

* The Hebrew ''[[geresh]]'' diacritic is used most often when typing, as it is the most accessible, whereas the diacritic ''[[rafe]]'' is used in handwriting.

=== Latin script ===

This orthography uses an [[interpunct]] (<{{angle bracket|·>)}} to distinguish the sequence {{IPA|/s+x/}} (written <{{angle bracket|s·h>}}) from the {{IPA|/ʃ/}} phoneme (written <{{angle bracket|sh>}}). It also uses acute accents to mark irregular stress. The regular stress pattern is as follows:

* Words that end with a vowel or with {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/s/}}, or {{IPA|/ʃ/}} are paroxytones.

* Words that end with any other consonant are oxytones.

{| class="wikitable"

|+Table of orthography{{Citation needed|reason=No specification of which orthography is being used (article remarks that there are many). It'd be good if different orthographies were displayed here side-by-side.|date=August 2024}}

~~|+Table of Orthography~~

!Grapheme

!Name

Line 696 ⟶ 718:

|{{IPA|/a/}}

|Be

|{{IPA|/b/}}

|ch

|Che

|{{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}

|De

|{{IPA|/d/}}

|dj

|Dje

|{{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}

|{{IPA|/e/}}

|Ef

|{{IPA|/f/}}

|Ge

|{{IPA|/g/}}

|He

|{{IPA|/x/}}

|'h

|'He

|{{IPA|/h/}}

|{{IPA|/i/}}

|Je

|{{IPA|/ʒ/}}

|Ka

|{{IPA|/k/}}

|El

|{{IPA|/l/}}

|Em

|{{IPA|/m/}}

|En

|{{IPA|/n/}}

|ny

|Nye

|{{IPA|/ɲ/}}

|{{IPA|/o/}}

|ö

|Ö

|{{IPA|/ø/}}

|Pe

|{{IPA|/p/}}

|Er

|{{IPA|/ɾ/}}

|rr

|{{IPA|/r/}}

|Es

|{{IPA|/s/}}

|sh

|She

|{{IPA|/ʃ/}}

|Te

|{{IPA|/t/}}

|ts

|{{IPA|/t͡s/}}

|{{IPA|/u/}}

|ü

|Ü

|{{IPA|/y/}}

|Ve

|{{IPA|/v/}}

|Iks

|{{IPA|/g+z/}}

|Ye

|{{IPA|/j/}}

|Zed

|{{IPA|/z/}}

=== Historical orthographies ===

Prior to the adoption of the official orthographies, the following systems of writing Judaeo-Spanish had been used or proposed.

* Formerly, the Hebrew-script orthography represented an etymological {{IPA|/ʎ/}}, which has merged with {{IPA|/j/}}.

* The [[Greek alphabet]] and the [[Cyrillic script]] were used in the past,<ref>''Verba Hispanica'' X: [http://hispanismo.cervantes.es/documentos/smidX.pdf Los problemas del estudio de la lengua sefardí] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407074136/http://hispanismo.cervantes.es/documentos/smidX.pdf |date= 7 April 2008}}, Katja Šmid, Ljubljana, pages 113–124: ''Es interesante el hecho que en Bulgaria se imprimieron unas pocas publicaciones en alfabeto cirílico búlgaro y en Grecia en alfabeto griego. [...] Nezirović (1992: 128) anota que también en Bosnia se ha encontrado un documento en que la lengua sefardí está escrita en alfabeto cirilico''. The Nezirović reference is: Nezirović, M., ''Jevrejsko-Španjolska književnost''. Institut za književnost, Svjetlost, Sarajevo, Bosnia 1992.</ref> but this is rare or nonexistent nowadays.

* In Turkey, Judaeo-Spanish was most commonly written in the [[Turkish alphabet|Turkish variant]] of the [[Latin alphabet]]. That may have been the most widespread system in use prior to the adoption of the official orthography, as following the decimation of Sephardic communities throughout much of Europe (particularly in Greece and the [[Balkans]]) during [[The Holocaust]], the greatest proportion of speakers remaining were Turkish Jews.

Line 837 ⟶ 859:

Following the 1490s expulsion from Spain [[expulsion of the Jews from Portugal|and Portugal]], most of the Iberian Jews resettled in the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Jews in the Ottoman [[Balkans]], [[Western Asia]] (especially Turkey), and [[North Africa]] (especially [[Morocco]]) developed their own Romance dialects, with some influence from Hebrew and other languages, which became what is now known as Judaeo-Spanish. Until recent times, the language was widely spoken throughout the Balkans, Turkey/Western Asia and North Africa, as Judaeo-Spanish had been brought there by the Jewish refugees.<ref>[http://www.sephardicstudies.org/quickladino.html "Ladinoikonunita: A quick explanation of Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish)]. Sephardicstudies.org. Retrieved on 19 October 2011.</ref> Later on, many Portuguese Jews also escaped to France, Italy, the [[Habsburg Netherlands|Netherlands]] and [[England]], establishing small groups in those nations as well, but these spoke [[Early Modern Spanish]] or Portuguese rather than Judaeo-Spanish. The contact among Jews of different regions and languages, including [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Leonese language|Leonese]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] developed a unified dialect, differing in some aspects from the Spanish norm that was forming simultaneously in Spain, but some of the mixing may have already occurred in exile rather than in the Iberian Peninsula.

In the 16th century, the development Judeo-Spanish was significantly influenced by the extensive mobility of Sephardic Jews. By the end of the century, Spanish had become the dominant language of commerce for Sephardic communities across Italy and the eastern Mediterranean.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Ray |first=Jonathan Stewart |title=After expulsion: 1492 and the making of Sephardic Jewry |date=2013 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-2911-3 |location=New York ~~|page=~~ |pages=137–138}}</ref> This standardization was further supported by practices such as hiring tutors to teach Castilian in [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew script]], as noted in a 1600 deposition from [[Pisa]]. Additionally, itinerant rabbis who preached in the vernacular contributed to the spread and standardization of Judeo-Spanish among diverse Sephardic congregations, including those in [[Greek language|Greek]]- and [[Arabic]]-speaking regions.<ref name=":2" />

The closeness and mutual comprehensibility between Judaeo-Spanish and Spanish favoured trade among Sephardim, often relatives, from the Ottoman Empire to the Netherlands and the ''[[converso]]s'' of the Iberian Peninsula.

Line 857 ⟶ 879:

From the 17th to the 19th centuries, Judaeo-Spanish was the predominant Jewish language in the Holy Land, but its dialect was different in some respects from the one in Greece and Turkey. Some families have lived in Jerusalem for centuries and preserve Judaeo-Spanish for cultural and folklore purposes although they now use Hebrew in everyday life.

An often-told Sephardic anecdote from [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]] has it that as a Spanish consulate was opened in [[Sarajevo]] in the [[interwar period]], two Sephardic women passed by. Upon hearing a Catholic priest who was speaking Spanish, they thought that his language meant that he was Jewish.<ref name="Papo">{{Cite ~~web~~journal |~~url~~last=~~http://www.bhdani.com/arhiva/90/papo90.htm~~Papo |~~title~~first=Eliezer ~~Papo:~~|date=2007 ~~From~~|title=Serbo-Croatian ~~the~~Influences ~~Wailing~~on ~~Wall~~Bosnian ~~(in~~Spoken ~~Bosnian) |access~~Judeo-~~date=18 August 2008~~Spanish |~~archive-~~url=~~https~~http://~~web~~dx.~~archive~~doi.org/~~web/20090624145027/http://www~~10.~~bhdani.com~~1163/~~arhiva/90/papo90.htm~~187247107783876329 |~~archive-date~~journal=24European ~~June~~Journal ~~2009~~of Jewish Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=343–363 |doi=10.1163/187247107783876329 |issn=1025-9996}}</ref>

In the 20th century, the number of speakers declined sharply: entire communities were murdered in the Holocaust, and many of the remaining speakers, many of whom emigrated to Israel, adopted Hebrew. The government of the new [[nation-state]] encouraged instruction in Hebrew. Similarly in the US, Sephardic Jews were encouraged to speak English rather than Judaeo-Spanish, therefore, the language was not passed down to younger generations.<ref name="harris2011">{{cite journal|last1=Harris |first1=Tracy K. |title=The State of Ladino Today |journal=[[European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe]] |date=2011 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=51–61 |doi=10.3167/ej.2011.44.01.07 |jstor=41444099 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41444099 |access-date=28 July 2024 |issn=0014-3006}}</ref> In Turkey, where there is a large community of Sephardic Jews, Judaeo-Spanish was considered a language of little prestige; additionally, parents refused to teach their children the language, fearing that their children would develop a "Jewish accent" and therefore face discrimination.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerson Şarhon |first1=Karen |author1-link=Karen Gerson Şarhon |title=Ladino in Turkey: The Situation Today as Reflected by the Ladino Database Project |journal=European Judaism: A Journal for the New Europe |date=2011 |volume=44 |issue=1 |pages=62–71 |doi=10.3167/ej.2011.44.01.08 |jstor=41444100 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41444100 |access-date=28 July 2024 |issn=0014-3006}}</ref> At the same time, Judaeo-Spanish aroused the interest of philologists, as it conserved language and literature from before the standardisation of Spanish.

Judaeo-Spanish is in serious danger of extinction. As of 2011, the majority of fluent speakers are over the age of 70; the descendants of these speakers exhibit little to no knowledge of the language.<ref name="harris2011"/> Nevertheless, it is experiencing a minor revival among Sephardic communities, especially in music. In addition, Sephardic communities in several Latin American countries still use Judaeo-Spanish. There, the language is exposed to the different danger of assimilation to modern Spanish.

Line 890 ⟶ 912:

== Modern education and use ==

In 1967, linguist [[Haïm Vidal Séphiha]] of the [[University of Paris]] became the first professor of Judaeo-Spanish in the world; courses of Judaeo-Spanish have been introduced in universities since then in other European countries, along with research centers dedicated to the study of the language.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sephiha |first1=Haim Vidal |last2=Mitchell |first2=Bruce |title=The Instruction of Judeo-Spanish in Europe |journal=Shofar |date=2001 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=58–70 |jstor=42943398 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42943398 |access-date=27 July 2024 |issn=0882-8539}}</ref> The ''National Authority of Ladino'', dedicated to the study and promotion of Judaeo-Spanish was established in Jerusalem in 1997.<ref name="harris2011"/>

As with Yiddish,<ref>Price, Sarah. (25 August 2005) [http://www.jewishjournal.com/articles/item/schools_to_teach_ein_bisel_yiddish_20050826/ Schools to Teach Ein Bisel Yiddish {{!}} Education]. Jewish Journal. Retrieved on 19 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://yiddish.haifa.ac.il/tmr/tmr11/tmr11010.htm The Mendele Review: Yiddish Literature and Language, Volume 11, No. 10]. Yiddish.haifa.ac.il (30 September 2007). Retrieved on 19 October 2011.</ref> Judaeo-Spanish is seeing a minor resurgence in educational interest in colleges across the United States and in Israel.<ref>[http://www.ejpress.org/article/2998 EJP {{!}} News {{!}} Western Europe {{!}} Judaeo-Spanish language revived] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529062649/http://www.ejpress.org/article/2998 |date=29 May 2009 }}. Ejpress.org (19 September 2005). Retrieved on 19 October 2011.</ref> Almost all [[American Jews]] are [[Ashkenazi]], with a tradition based on Yiddish, rather than Judaeo-Spanish, and so institutions that offer Yiddish are more common. {{As of|2011}} the [[University of Pennsylvania]]<ref>[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jwst/courses09c.htm#JWST231680 Jewish Studies Program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117204334/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jwst/courses09c.htm#JWST231680 |date=17 November 2012 }}. Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. Retrieved on 19 October 2011.</ref><ref>[http://www.jewishexponent.com/article/12032 Ladino Class at Penn Tries to Resuscitate Dormant Language] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323123729/http://www.jewishexponent.com/article/12032 |date=23 March 2011 }}. The Jewish Exponent (1 February 2007). Retrieved on 19 October 2011.</ref> and [[Tufts University]]<ref>[https://ase.tufts.edu/grall/judaic/courses.asp Department of German, Russian & Asian Languages and Literature – Tufts University]. Ase.tufts.edu. Retrieved on 19 October 2011.</ref> offered Judaeo-Spanish courses among colleges in the United States; [[INALCO]] in Paris, the [[University of the Basque Country]] and [[University of Granada]] in Spain were offering courses as well.<ref name="harris2011"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://jewishstandard.timesofisrael.com/For-love-of-Ladino/?/content/item/2617 |title=For love of Ladino |work=[[The Jewish Standard]] |access-date=19 October 2011}}</ref> In Israel, Moshe David Gaon Center for Ladino Culture at [[Ben-Gurion University]] of the Negev is leading the way in education (language and literature courses, Community oriented activities) and research (a yearly scientific journal, international congresses and conferences etc.). [[Hebrew University]] also offers courses.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://pluto.huji.ac.il/~msladino/courses.htm |title=Courses – Ladino Studies At The Hebrew University of Jerusalem |website=[[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] |date=30 July 2010 |access-date=19 October 2011}}</ref> The [[Complutense University of Madrid]] also used to have courses.<ref>{{cite web|title=Hebrew Philology courses (in Spanish) |url=http://www.ucm.es/info/portalempleo/guia/titu_especi.php?idtitulacion=104 |work=UCM |access-date=22 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121212121312/http://www.ucm.es/info/portalempleo/guia/titu_especi.php?idtitulacion=104 |archive-date=12 December 2012 }}</ref> Prof. [[David M. Bunis|David Bunis]] taught Judaeo-Spanish at the [[University of Washington]], in Seattle during the 2013–14 academic year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jewishstudies.washington.edu/blog/why-im-teaching-a-new-generation-to-read-and-write-ladino |title=Why I'm teaching a new generation to read and write Ladino |publisher=Jewish Studies |date=2014-02-23}}</ref> Bunis returned to the University of Washington for the Summer 2020 quarter.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-08-17 |title=The Legacy of Ladino |url=https://artsci.washington.edu/news/2020-08/legacy-ladino |access-date=2021-05-13 |website=College of Arts and Sciences – [[University of Washington]] |language=en}}</ref>

Line 896 ⟶ 918:

In Spain, the [[Spanish Royal Academy]] (RAE) in 2017 announced plans to create a Judaeo-Spanish branch in Israel in addition to 23 existing academies, in various Spanish-speaking countries, that are associated in the [[Association of Spanish Language Academies]]. Its stated purpose is to preserve Judaeo-Spanish. The move was seen as another step to make up for the Expulsion, following the [[Sephardi Jews#Spanish citizenship by Iberian Sephardic descent|offer of Spanish citizenship to Sephardim]] who had some connection with Spain.<ref name=rae/>

When French-medium schools operated by [[Alliance Israelite Universelle]] opened in the [[Ottoman Empire]] in the 1860s, the position of Judaeo-Spanish began to weaken in the Ottoman Empire areas. In time Judaeo-Spanish became perceived as a low status language,<ref name=Alphan>{{cite news|last=Alphan |first=Melis |author-link=Melis Alphan|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/opinion/melis-alphan/ladino-a-judeo-ottoman-language-that-is-dying-in-turkey-123826 |title=Ladino: A Judeo-Ottoman language that is dying in Turkey |newspaper=[[Hürriyet]] |date=2017-12-09 |access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> and Sephardic people began losing connections to that language.<ref>{{cite web|last=Austin|first=Dana|url=https://sfi.usc.edu:443/sites/default/files/profiles/World War II and the Decline of the Ladino Language- Dana Austin.pdf|title=World War II and the Decline of the Ladino Language|publisher=[[USC Shoah Foundation]]|access-date=2004-02-03|page=2/6}}</ref> Esther Benbassa and Aron Rodrigue, authors of ''[[Sephardi Jewry: A History of the Judeo-Spanish Community, 14th-20th Centuries]]'', wrote that the AIU institutions "gallicized" people who attended.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Benbassa|first1=Esther|last2=Rodrigue|first2=Aron|title=Sephardi Jewry: A History of the Judeo-Spanish Community, 14th-20th Centuries|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|date=2000-04-13|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=75yqSStYjocC&pg=PA3 93]}}</ref> As time progressed, Judaeo-Spanish language and culture declined. Although Mary Altabev in 1994 observed limited use of Ladino at home among educated Turkish Jews, [[Melis Alphan]] wrote in ''[[Hürriyet]]'' in 2017 that the Judaeo-Spanish language in Turkey was heading to extinction.<ref name="harris2011"/><ref name=Alphan/>

== Samples ==

=== Comparison with other languages ===

~~:<small>''Note: Judaeo-Spanish samples in this section are generally written in the [[#Aki Yerushalayim orthography|''Aki Yerushalayim'' orthography]] unless otherwise specified.''</small>~~

{|class="wikitable"

! rowspan="2" |Judaeo-Spanish

!Aki Yerushalayim orthography

|{{Script/Hebr|{{lang|lad-Hebr|איל גﬞודיאו־איספאנײול איס לה לינגואה פﬞאבﬞלאדה די לוס גﬞודיוס ספﬞרדים ארונגﬞאדוס די לה איספאנײה איניל 1492. איס אונה לינגואה דיריבﬞאדה דיל איספאנײול אי פﬞאבﬞלאדה די 150,000 פירסונאס אין קומוניטאס אין ישראל, לה טורקײה, אנטיקה יוגוסלאבﬞײה, לה גריסײה, איל מארואיקוס, מאיורקה, לאס אמיריקאס, אינטרי מונגﬞוס אוטרוס לוגאריס.|rtl=yes}}}}

{{lang|lad-Latn-IL|El djudeo-espanyol es la lingua favlada de los djudios sefardim arondjados de la Espanya enel 1492. Es una lingua derivada del espanyol i favlada de 150.000 personas en komunitas en Israel, la Turkia, antika Yugoslavia, la Gresia, el Maruekos, Mayorka, las Amerikas, entre munchos otros lugares.}}

!Castillian-inspired orthography

~~!Judaeo-Spanish (Spanish-styled spelling)~~

|{{lang|lad-Latn-IL|El judeoespañol es la lingua favlada de los judiós sefaradim arronjados de la España en el 1492. Es una lingua derivada del español y favlada de 150.000 personas en comunitás en Israel, la Turquía, antica Yugoslavia, la Grecia, el Marruecos, Mayorca, las Américas, entre munchos otros lugares.}}

! colspan="2" |[[Castillian language|Castillian]]

~~!Spanish~~

|{{lang|es|El judeoespañol es la lengua hablada por los judíos sefardíes expulsados{{efn|group=note|The direct Spanish cognate of Judaeo-Spanish 'arondjado(s)' is 'arrojado(s)', which has the meaning of 'thrown' and 'kicked-out', but not 'exiled' like its Judaeo-Spanish counterpart.}} de España en 1492. Es una lengua derivada del español y hablada por 150.000 personas en comunidades en Israel, Turquía, la antigua Yugoslavia, Grecia, Marruecos, Mallorca, las Américas, entre muchos otros lugares.}}

! colspan="2" |[[Asturian language|Asturian]]

|{{lang|ast|El xudeoespañol ye la llingua falada polos xudíos sefardinos espulsaos d'España en 1492. Ye una llingua derivada del español y falada por 150.000 persones en comunidaes n'Israel, Turquía, na antigua Yugoslavia, Grecia, Marruecos, Mallorca, nes Amériques, ente munchos otros llugares.}}

! rowspan="2" |[[Galician language|Galician]]

!Standard

|{{lang|gl|O xudeo-español é a lingua falada polos xudeus sefardís expulsados de España en 1492. É unha lingua derivada do español e falada por 150.000 persoas en comunidades en Israel, en Turquía, na antiga Iugoslavia, Grecia, Marrocos, Maiorca, nas Américas, entre moitos outros lugares.

O judeu-espanhol é a língua falada polos judeus sefardis espulsados de Espanha em 1492. É uma língua derivada do espanhol e falada por 150.000 pessoas em comunidades em Israel, em Turquia, na antiga Iugoslávia, Grécia, Marrocos, Maiorca, nas Américas, entre muitos outros lugares.{{efn|group=note|Reintegrationist spelling.}}}}

!Reintegrationist

|{{lang|gl|O judeu-espanhol é a língua falada polos judeus sefardis espulsados de Espanha em 1492. É uma língua derivada do espanhol e falada por 150.000 pessoas em comunidades em Israel, em Turquia, na antiga Iugoslávia, Grécia, Marrocos, Maiorca, nas Américas, entre muitos outros lugares.}}

! colspan="2" |[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]

|{{lang|pt|O judeu-espanhol é a língua falada pelos judeus sefarditas expulsos da Espanha em 1492. É uma língua derivada do castelhano e falada por 150.000 pessoas em comunidades em Israel, na Turquia, ex-Jugoslávia, Grécia, Marrocos, Maiorca, nas Américas, entre muitos outros locais.}}

! colspan="2" |[[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]

|{{lang|an|O chodigo-espanyol ye la luenga parlata por os chodigos sefardís expulsats d'Espanya en 1492. Ye una luenga derivata de l'espanyol i parlata por 150.000 personas en comunitatz en Israel, Turquía, l'antiga Yugoslavia, Grecia, Marruecos, Mallorca, las Américas, entre muitos atros lugares.}}

! colspan="2" |[[Catalan language|Catalan]]

|{{lang|ca|El judeoespanyol és la llengua parlada pels jueus sefardites expulsats d'Espanya al 1492. És una llengua derivada de l'espanyol i parlada per 150.000 persones en comunitats a Israel, Turquia, l'antiga Iugoslàvia, Grècia, el Marroc, Mallorca, les Amèriques, entre molts altres llocs.}}

![[Occitan language|Occitan]] (
![[Languedocien dialect]])

|{{lang|oc-lengadoc|Lo judeoespanhol es la lenga parlada pels jusieus sefarditas expulsats d'Espanha en 1492. Es una lenga venent del castelhan que 150 000 personas la parlan dins de comunautats en Israèl, Turquia, èx-Iogoslavia, Grècia, Marròc, Malhòrca, las Americas, entre fòrça autres luòcs.}}

! colspan="2" |English

|Judaeo-Spanish is the language spoken by Sephardic Jews expelled from Spain in 1492. It is a language derived from Spanish and spoken by 150,000 people in communities in Israel, Turkey, the former Yugoslavia, Greece, Morocco, Majorca, the Americas, among many other places.

Line 1,148 ⟶ 1,173:

=== Dialectal differences ===

{| class=wikitable

~~Turkish ([[Istanbul]])~~

!Turkish ([[Istanbul]])

|{{lang|lad-Latn-IL| Esto sta bueno. Importa voz soş las ratoneras, i los mansevos son los ratuneros. Dime tu a mi, stuvo kazado este Tolstoy?}}

!Serbo-Croatian ([[Sarajevo]])

|{{lang|lad-Latn-IL| Estu sta buenu. Importa vuoztras sos las ratoneras, i lus mansevus son lus ratunis. Dizmi tu a mi, stuvu kazadu esti Tolstoj?}}

!Greek ([[Thessaloniki]])

|{{lang|lad-Latn-IL| Esto sta bueno. Importa voz sos las ratoneras, i los mansevos son los ratuneros. Dime tu a mi, stuvo kasado este Tolstoi?}}

!Macedonian ([[Bitola]])

|{{lang|lad-Latn-IL| Estu sta buenu. Impurta vuoztras sos las ratoneras, i lus mansevus son lus ratunis. Dizmje tu a mi, stuvu kazadu isti Tolstoj?}}

=== Selected words by origin ===

Line 1,231 ⟶ 1,254:

<ref>{{cite web |title=Esther Ofarim web site|url=http://www.esther-ofarim.de/Disco.htm |website=Esther Ofarim}}</ref>

The Jewish Bosnian-American musician [[Flory Jagoda]] recorded two CDs of music taught to her by her grandmother, a Sephardic folk singer, among a larger discography.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Flory Jagoda |url=https://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/jagoda-flory |access-date=2023-12-24 |website=Jewish Women's Archive |date=23 June 2021 |language=en}}</ref> Following her death in 2021, gentile musicians in Bosnia have recorded music in Judaeo-Spanish as well.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Klein |first1=David I. |title=In Bosnia, gentile musicians work to preserve the country's Sephardic Jewish tradition |url=https://religionnews.com/2023/11/20/in-bosnia-gentile-musicians-work-to-preserve-the-countrys-sephardic-jewish-tradition/ |access-date=28 July 2024 |work=Religion News Service |date=20 November 2023}}</ref>

The cantor Ramón Tasat, who learned Judeo-Spanish at his grandmother's knee in [[Buenos Aires]], has recorded many songs in the language, with three of his CDs focusing primarily on that music.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ramón Tasat |url=https://msac.org/directory/artists/ramon-tasat |access-date=December 24, 2023 |website=Maryland State Arts Council}}</ref>