Kashgar: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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| name = Kashgar

| official_name =

| native_name = {{native name list |tag1=ug|name1={{Script/Arabic|قەشقەر شەھرى }}|tag2=zh|name2=喀什市}}

| other_name = Kashi

| settlement_type = [[County-level city]]

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The earliest mention of Kashgar occurs when a Chinese [[Han dynasty]] envoy travelled the [[Northern Silk Road]] to explore lands to the west.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18006 |title=''Silk Road, North China'', C. Michael Hogan, the Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham |access-date=24 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628202642/http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18006 |archive-date=28 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Another early mention of Kashgar is during the [[Former Han]] (also known as the [[Western Han dynasty]]), when in 76 BCE the Chinese conquered the [[Xiongnu]], Yutian ([[Hotan|Khotan]]), Sulei (Kashgar) and a group of states in the [[Tarim Basin]] almost up to the foot of the [[Tian Shan]] range.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

[[Ptolemy]] speaks of [[Scythia]] beyond the [[Imaus]], which is in a "Kasia Regio", probably exhibiting the name from which Kashgar and Kashgaria (often applied to the district) are formed.<ref>"The Triple System of Orography in Ptolemy's Xinjiang", pp. 530–531. Étienne de la Vaissière.(2009) ''Exegisti monumenta: Festschrift in Honour of Nicholas Sims-Williams''. Eds W. Sundermann, A. Hintze and F. de Blois Harrassowitz Verlag Wiesbaden. {{ISBN|978-3-447-05937-4}}</ref> The country's people practised [[Zoroastrianism]] and [[Buddhism]] before the coming of [[Islam]].{{cn|date=September 2024}}

In the ''[[Book of Han]]'', which covers the period between 125 BCE and 23 CE, it is recorded that there were 1,510 households, 18,647 people and 2,000 persons able to bear arms. By the time covered by the ''[[Book of the Later Han]]'' (roughly 25 to 170 CE), it had grown to 21,000 households and had 3,000 men able to bear arms.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:70%; float:right; clear:right; margin-left:1em;"

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These centuries are marked by a general silence in sources on Kashgar and the Tarim Basin.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

The ''[[Weilüe]]'', composed in the second third of the 3rd century, mentions a number of states as dependencies of Kashgar: the kingdom of Zhenzhong (Arach?), the kingdom of Suoju (Yarkand), the kingdom of Jieshi, the kingdom of Qusha, the kingdom of Xiye (Khargalik), the kingdom of Yinai (Tashkurghan), the kingdom of Manli (modern Karasul), the kingdom of Yire (Mazar − also known as Tágh Nák and Tokanak), the kingdom of Yuling, the kingdom of Juandu ('Tax Control' − near modern Irkeshtam), the kingdom of Xiuxiu ('Excellent Rest Stop' − near Karakavak), and the kingdom of Qin.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

However, much of the information on the Western Regions contained in the ''Weilüe'' seems to have ended roughly about (170), near the end of Han power. So, we cannot be sure that this is a reference to the state of affairs during the Cao Wei (220–265), or whether it refers to the situation before the civil war during the Later Han when China lost touch with most foreign countries and came to be divided into three separate kingdoms.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

Chapter 30 of the ''[[Records of the Three Kingdoms]]'' says that after the beginning of the [[Cao Wei|Wei Dynasty]] (220) the states of the Western Regions did not arrive as before, except for the larger ones such as [[Kucha]], [[Khotan]], [[Kangju]], [[Wusun]], Kashgar, [[Yuezhi]], [[Shanshan]] and [[Turpan]], who are said to have come to present tribute every year, as in Han times.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

[[File:Silk Road 1992.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.1|Camels traversing the old [[Silk Road]] in 1992]]

In 270, four states from the Western Regions were said to have presented tribute: [[Karashahr]], [[Turpan]], [[Shanshan]], and [[Kucha]]. Some wooden documents from [[Niya (Tarim Basin)|Niya]] seem to indicate that contacts were also maintained with Kashgar and Khotan around this time.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

In 422, according to the ''Songshu'', ch. 98, the king of Shanshan, Bilong, came to the court and "the thirty-six states in the Western Regions" all swore their allegiance and presented tribute. It must be assumed that these 36 states included Kashgar.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

The "Songji" of the [[Zizhi Tongjian]] records that in the 5th month of 435, nine states: Kucha, Kashgar, Wusun, Yueban, Tashkurghan, Shanshan, Karashahr, Turpan and Sute all came to the Wei court.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

In 439, Shanshan, Kashgar and Karashahr sent envoys to present tribute.<ref>''Weishu'', ch. 4A</ref>

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===Tang dynasty===

{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2024}}{{Main|Tang campaigns against the Western Turks|Tang campaign against the oasis states|l2=oasis states|Conquest of the Western Turks}}

[[File:唐朝疆域（繁）.png|thumb|The Tang dynasty at its greatest extent, controlling large parts of Central Asia]]

The founding of the [[Tang dynasty]] in 618 saw the beginning of a prolonged struggle between China and the Western Turks for control of the Tarim Basin. In 635, the ''[[Old Book of Tang|Tang Annals]]'' reported an emissary from the king of Kashgar to the Tang capital. In 639 there was a second emissary bringing products of Kashgar as a token of submission to the Tang state.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

Buddhist scholar [[Xuanzang]] passed through Kashgar (which he referred to as ''Kasha'') in 644 on his return journey from [[India]] to China. The Buddhist religion, then beginning to decay in India, was active in Kashgar. Xuanzang recorded that they flattened their babies heads, tattooed their bodies and had green eyes. He reported that Kashgar had abundant crops, fruits and flowers, wove fine woolen stuffs and rugs. Their writing system had been adapted from Indian script but their language was different from that of other countries. The inhabitants were sincere Buddhist adherents and there were some hundreds of monasteries with more than 10,000 followers, all members of the [[Sarvastivadin]] School.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

At around the same era, [[Nestorian Christians]] were establishing bishoprics at [[Herat]], [[Merv]] and [[Samarkand]], whence they subsequently proceeded to Kashgar, and finally to [[China proper]] itself.

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After another defeat of the Tang Chinese forces in 670, the Tibetans gained control of the whole region and completely subjugated Kashgar in 676-8 and retained possession of it until 692, when the Tang dynasty regained control of all their former territories, and retained it for the next fifty years.

In 722 Kashgar sent 4,000 troops to assist the Chinese to force the "Tibetans out of "Little Bolu" or [[Gilgit, Pakistan|Gilgit]].{{cn|date=September 2024}}

In 728, the king of Kashgar was awarded a brevet by the Chinese emperor.

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In 739, the ''Tangshu'' relates that the governor of the Chinese garrison in Kashgar, with the help of Ferghana, was interfering in the affairs of the [[Turgesh]] tribes as far as [[Taraz|Talas]].

In 751 the Chinese were defeated by an Arab army in the [[Battle of Talas]]. The [[An Lushan Rebellion]] led to the decline of Tang influence in Central Asia due to the fact that the Tang dynasty was forced to withdraw its troops from the region to fight An Lushan. The Tibetans cut all communication between China and the West in 766.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

Soon after the Chinese pilgrim monk [[Wukong (monk)|Wukong]] passed through Kashgar in 753. He again reached Kashgar on his return trip from India in 786 and mentions a Chinese deputy governor as well as the local king.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

===Battles with Arab Caliphate===

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===Turkic rule===

According to the 10th-century text ''[[Hudud al-'alam]]'' "the chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old were from the [[Karluks|Qarluq]], or from the [[Yagma|Yaghma]]."<ref name="anthology">{{cite book |author=Scott Cameron Levi, Ron Sela |title=Islamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources |chapter=Chapter 4, Discourse on the Country of the Yaghma and its Towns |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAX5ohFkcVgC&pg=PA30 |page=30 |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-253-35385-6 }}</ref> The Karluks, Yaghmas and other tribes such as the [[Chigils]] formed the [[Karakhanids]]. The Karakhanid [[Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan]] converted to Islam in the 10th century and captured Kashgar. Kashgar was the capital of the Karakhanid state for a time but later the capital was moved to [[Balasaghun]]. During the latter part of the 10th century, the Muslim Karakhanids began a struggle against the Buddhist [[Kingdom of Khotan]], and the Khotanese defeated the Karakhanids and captured Kashgar in 970.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Silk Road: A New History |author=Valerie Hansen |date=11 October 2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0LYDf02jgdAC&pg=PA227 |pages=227–228 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-515931-8 }}</ref> Chinese sources recorded the king of Khotan offering to send them a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |editor=E. Yarshater |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA271 |chapter=Chapter 7, The Iranian Settlements to the East of the Pamirs |year=1983 |page=271 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20092-9 }}</ref> Later in 1006, the Karakhanids of Kashgar under Yusuf Kadr Khan conquered [[Khotan]].{{cn|date=September 2024}}

The Karakhanid Khanate however was beset with internal strife, and the khanate split into two, the Eastern and Western Karakhanid Khanates, with Kashgar falling within the domain of the Eastern Karakhanid state.<ref name="UNESCO">{{citation|last = Davidovich|first = E. A.|year = 1998|title = History of Civilisations of Central Asia|editor1-last = Asimov|editor1-first = M.S.|editor2-last = Bosworth|editor2-first = C.E.|volume = 4 part I |chapter=Chapter 6 The Karakhanids |pages = 119–144|publisher = UNESCO Publishing|isbn = 92-3-103467-7 }}</ref> In 1089, the Western Karakhanids fell under the control of the [[Seljuks]], but the Eastern Karakhanids was for the most part independent.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

Both the Karakhanid states were defeated in the 12th century by the [[Kara-Khitan]]s who captured Balasaghun, however Karakhanid rule continued in Kashgar under the [[suzerainty]] of the Kara-Khitans.<ref>{{citation|last = Golden|first = Peter. B.|contribution = The Karakhanids and Early Islam|year = 1990|title = The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia|editor-last = Sinor|editor-first = Denis|page = 357 |publisher = Cambridge University Press|isbn = 0-521-24304-1}}</ref> The Kara-Khitan rulers followed a policy of religious tolerance, Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Kashgar was also a [[Nestorian Christianity|Nestorian]] [[metropolitan see]].<ref name="khitay">{{citation|last = Sinor|first = D.|chapter = Chapter 11 – The Kitan and the Kara Kitay|year = 1998|title = History of Civilisations of Central Asia|editor1-last = Asimov|editor1-first = M.S.|editor2-last = Bosworth|editor2-first = C.E.|volume = 4 part I |publisher = UNESCO Publishing|isbn = 92-3-103467-7 }}</ref> The last Karakhanid of Kashgar was killed in a revolt in 1211 by the city's notables. [[Kuchlug]], a usurper of the throne of the Kara-Khitans, then attacked Kashgar which finally surrendered in 1214.<ref>{{cite book |author=Biran, Michal. |title=The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History: Between China and the Islamic World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |pages=80–81 |isbn= 0-521-84226-3 }}</ref>

=== Mongol rule ===

The [[Kara-Khitai]] in their turn were swept away in 1219 by [[Genghis Khan]]. After his death, Kashgar came under the rule of the [[Chagatai Khans]]. [[Marco Polo]] visited the city, which he calls ''Cascar'', about 1273-4 and recorded the presence of numerous [[Nestorian Christians]], who had their own churches. Later In the 14th century, a Chagataid khan [[Tughluq Timur]] converted to Islam, and Islamic tradition began to reassert its ascendancy.

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=== Qing conquest ===

[[File:Xinjiang 1759 - 16.jpg|left|thumb|Kashgar, {{circa}} 1759]]

[[File:万国来朝图 Kashgar (喀什喀爾) delegates in Peking in 1761.jpg|thumb|Kashgar ({{lang|zh-hant|喀什喀爾}}) delegates in Peking ([[Beijing]]) in 1761. From ''[[Ten Thousand Nations Coming to Pay Tribute]]''.]]

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The [[Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)]] involved insurrection among various Muslim ethnic groups. It broke out in 1862 in [[Gansu]] then spread rapidly to [[Dzungaria]] and through the line of towns in the [[Tarim Basin]].

[[Dungan people|Dungan]] troops based in [[Yarkent County|Yarkand]] rose and in August 1864 massacred some seven thousand Chinese and their Manchu commander. The inhabitants of Kashgar, rising in their turn against their masters, invoked the aid of [[Sadik Beg]], a [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] chief, who was reinforced by [[Buzurg Khan]], the heir of [[Jahanghir Khoja]], and his general [[Yakub Beg of Yettishar|Yakub Beg]]. The latter men were dispatched at Sadik's request by the [[Alimqul|ruler of Khokand]] to raise what troops they could to aid his Muslim friends in Kashgar.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

Sadik Beg soon repented of having asked for a Khoja, and eventually marched against Kashgar, which by this time had succumbed to Buzurg Khan and Yakub Beg, but was defeated and driven back to Khokand. Buzurg Khan delivered himself up to indolence and debauchery, but Yakub Beg, with singular energy and perseverance, seized control of Kashgar, [[Yangihissar]], [[Yarkent County|Yarkand]], and four other towns, Buzurg Khan proving himself totally unfit for the post of ruler. Yakub Beg subsequently proclaimed himself emir of [[Yettishar]] ({{literally|the Seven Cities}}).{{cn|date=September 2024}}

With the overthrow of Chinese rule in 1865 by Yakub Beg, the manufacturing industries of Kashgar supposedly declined.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

Yakub Beg entered into relations with the [[British Empire|British]] and [[Russian Empire]]s, and signed respective treaties with each. However, he failed to receive meaningful assistance from the two [[great power]]s when he was in need of their support against the Qing.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/achinesebiograp01gilegoog|title=A Chinese biographical dictionary, Volume 2|author=Herbert Allen Giles|year=1898|publisher=B. Quaritch|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/achinesebiograp01gilegoog/page/n912 894]|access-date=13 July 2011}}</ref>

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There were eras in Xinjiang's history where intermarriage was common, and "laxity" set upon Uyghur women led them to marry Chinese men in the period after Yakub Beg's rule ended. It is also believed by Uyghurs that some Uyghurs have Han Chinese ancestry from historical intermarriage, such as those living in [[Turpan]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Joanne N. Smith Finley|title=The Art of Symbolic Resistance: Uyghur Identities and Uyghur-Han Relations in Contemporary Xinjiang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQBBAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA309|date=9 September 2013|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-25678-1|pages=309–}}</ref>

Even though Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslims in Islamic law, from 1880 to 1949 it was frequently violated in Xinjiang when Chinese men married Uyghur women. Because they were viewed as "outcast", Islamic cemeteries banned the Uyghur wives of Chinese men from being buried within them. Uyghur women got around this problem by giving shrines donations and buying a grave in other towns. Besides Chinese men, other men such as [[Hindus]], [[Armenians]], [[Jews]], [[Russians]], and [[Badakhshan]]is ([[Pamiri people|Pamiris]]) intermarried with local Uyghur women.<ref name="Bellér-Hann2008">{{cite book|author=Ildikó Bellér-Hann|title=Community Matters in Xinjiang, 1880–1949: Towards a Historical Anthropology of the Uyghur|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cF4lMj8skvoC&pg=PA83|year=2008|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-16675-2}}</ref>{{rp|84}} The local society accepted the Uyghur women and Chinese men's mixed offspring as their own people despite the marriages being in violation of Islamic law.

An anti-Russian uproar broke out when Russian customs officials, 3 Cossacks and a Russian courier invited local Uyghur prostitutes to a party in January 1902 in Kashgar. There was a general [[anti-Russian sentiment]], but the inflamed local Uyghur populace started a brawl with the Russians on the pretense of protecting their women. Even though morality was not strict in Kashgar, the local population confronted with the Russians before they were dispersed by guards, and the Chinese then sought to end tensions by preventing the Russians from building up a pretext to invade.<ref name="NightingaleSkrine2013">{{cite book|author1=Pamela Nightingale|author2=C.P. Skrine|title=Macartney at Kashgar: New Light on British, Chinese and Russian Activities in Sinkiang, 1890–1918|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lTn-AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA124|date=5 November 2013|orig-date=1973|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-57609-6}}</ref>{{rp|124}}

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===First East Turkestan Republic===

Kashgar was the scene of continual battles from 1933 to 1934. [[Ma Shaowu]], a [[Hui people|Chinese Muslim]], was the [[Tao-yin]] of Kashgar, and he fought against Uyghur rebels. He was joined by another Chinese Muslim general, [[Ma Zhancang]].{{cn|date=September 2024}}

====Battle of Kashgar (1933)====

Uyghur and Kyrgyz forces, led by the Bughra brothers and [[Tawfiq Bay]], attempted to take the New City of Kashgar from Chinese Muslim troops under General [[Ma Zhancang]]. They were defeated.{{cn|date=September 2024}}

Tawfiq Bey, a Syrian Arab traveller, who held the title ''Sayyid'' (descendant of [[Muhammed]]) and arrived at Kashgar on 26 August 1933, was shot in the stomach by the Chinese Muslim troops in September. Previously Ma Zhancang arranged to have the Uyghur leader [[Timur Beg]] killed and beheaded on 9 August 1933, displaying his head outside of [[Id Kah Mosque]].{{cn|date=September 2024}}

[[Han Chinese]] troops commanded by Brigadier Yang were absorbed into [[Ma Zhancang]]'s army. A number of Han Chinese officers were spotted wearing the green uniforms of Ma Zhancang's unit of the 36th division; presumably they had converted to Islam.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IAs9AAAAIAAJ&q=brigadier+yang+ma+daughter&pg=PA95|title=Warlords and Muslims in Chinese Central Asia: a political history of Republican Sinkiang 1911–1949|author=Andrew D. W. Forbes|year=1986|publisher=CUP Archive|location=Cambridge, England|isbn=0-521-25514-7|page=288|access-date=28 June 2010}}</ref>

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On 31 October 1981, an incident occurred in the city due to a dispute between Uyghurs and Han Chinese in which three were killed. The incident was quelled by an army unit.<ref name="terzani">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/forbiddendoor00terz|title=The Forbidden Door|date=1985|publisher=Asia 2000 Ltd|author=[[Tiziano Terzani]]|via=[[Internet Archive]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/forbiddendoor00terz/page/224 224]|isbn=978-962-7160-01-4|quote=A similar incident occurred in the center of Kashgar on October 31, 1981. A group of Uighur workers wanted to dig a trench in the pavement in front of a state shop run by Hans. The initial discussion became a quarrel and a Han ended up shooting and killing one of the Uighurs with a shotgun. Thousands of Uighurs joined in. For hours the city was in chaos, and two Hans were killed. An Army unit had to be called in to quell the violence and separate the two communities.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/asiapacific-region/chinauighurs-1949-present/|title=33. China/Uighurs (1949–present)|website=[[University of Central Arkansas]]|access-date=8 April 2020|quote=Two individuals were killed in ethnic violence in Kashgar on October 30, 1981.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505173454/https://uca.edu/politicalscience/dadm-project/asiapacific-region/chinauighurs-1949-present/|archive-date=5 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1986, the Chinese government designated Kashgar a "city of historical and cultural significance".{{cn|date=September 2024}} Kashgar and surrounding regions have been the site of Uyghur unrest since the 1990s. In 2008, two Uyghur men [[2008 Kashgar attack|carried out a vehicular, IED and knife attack]] against police officers. In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the deadly role of faulty architecture during the [[2008 Sichuan earthquake]]. Many of the old houses in the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes. Additionally, the newer buildings may also have been built with increased ease of surveillance in mind.<ref>{{Cite news |~~url~~date=~~https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/04/world/asia/xinjiang~~2008-~~china~~08-~~surveillance-prison.html~~05 |title=~~How~~ China ~~Turned~~confident aof ~~City~~safe ~~Into~~Olympics ~~a Prison~~|~~last1=Buckley|first1=Chris|date=4 April 2019|work=The New York Times|access-date=4 April 2019|last2=Mozur|first2=Paul|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331|last3=Ramzy|first3=Austin|archive-~~url=~~https~~http://~~web~~news.~~archive~~bbc.~~org/web/20190404101603/https://www~~co.~~nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04~~uk/042/~~world~~hi/asia~~/xinjiang~~-~~china-surveillance-prison~~pacific/7542167.~~html~~stm |~~archive~~access-date=42024-09-11 ~~April 2019~~|~~url-status~~language=~~live~~en-GB}}</ref>

In 2009, development of Kashgar's old town accelerated after the revelations of the deadly role of faulty architecture during the [[2008 Sichuan earthquake]]. Many of the old houses in the old town were built without regulation, and as a result, officials found them to be overcrowded and non-compliant with fire and earthquake codes.{{cn|date=September 2024}} When the plan started, 42 per cent of the city's residents lived in the old town. As the plan was undertaken, residents have been removed from their homes in order to demolish large sections of the old city and replace these areas with new developments.<ref name="Fan">{{cite news

|author=Fan, Maureen

|title=An Ancient Culture, Bulldozed Away

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}}</ref> The [[European Parliament]] issued a [[Resolution (law)|resolution]] in 2011 calling for "culture-sensitive methods of renovation."<ref name="europarl.europa.eu">{{cite web |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=MOTION&reference=P7-RC-2011-0168&language=EN |title=JOINT MOTION FOR A RESOLUTION |work=European Parliament |date=9 March 2011 |access-date=15 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110914042734/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.do?type=MOTION&reference=P7-RC-2011-0168&language=EN |archive-date=14 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> The International Scientific Committee on Earthen Architectural Heritage (ISCEAH) has expressed concern over the demolition and reconstruction of historic buildings. ISCEAH has, additionally, urged the implementation of techniques utilised elsewhere in the world to address earthquake vulnerability.<ref>ICOMOS-ISCEAH (2009). "Heritage in the Aftermath of the Sichuan Earthquake". In Christoph Machat, Michael Petzet and John Ziesemer (Eds.), {{cite web |url=http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/world_report/2008-2010/H@R_2008-2010_final.pdf |title=Heritage at Risk: ICOMOS World Report 2008–2010 on Monuments and Sites in Danger |access-date=6 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623171530/http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/world_report/2008-2010/H@R_2008-2010_final.pdf |archive-date=23 June 2011 |url-status=live }} Berlin: hendrik Bäßler verlag, 2010.</ref>

Following the [[July 2009 Ürümqi riots]], the government focused on local economic development in an attempt to ameliorate ethnic tensions in the greater Xinjiang region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-10-09 |title=Aid Fuels Change of Fortunes on Silk Road - The New York Times |website=[[The New York Times]] |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/world/asia/15kashgar.html?pagewanted=all |access-date=2024-09-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161009114358/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/world/asia/15kashgar.html?pagewanted=all |archive-date=9 October 2016 }}</ref> Kashgar was made into a [[Special economic zone of the People's Republic of China|Special Economic Zone]] in 2010, the first such zone in China's far west. In 2011, a [[2011 Kashgar attacks|~~spate~~series of ~~violence~~attacks]] ~~over~~including ~~two~~bombings ~~days~~by the [[Turkistan Islamic Party]] killed dozens of people.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2011-09-08 |title=Islamic militant group 'behind Xinjiang attacks' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-14834042 |access-date=2024-09-11 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

By May 2012, two-thirds of the old city had been demolished,. ~~which, according~~According to ~~critics~~the Chinese government, demolition and rebuilding was ~~done~~necessary ~~partially~~because houses in ~~order~~the old city were "extremely vulnerable to ~~fulfill~~earthquakes and fire"; the ~~political~~[[2003 ~~goal~~Bachu earthquake]] had destroyed thousands of ~~eroding~~buildings ~~Uyghur~~in ~~culture~~the region. ~~According~~Some tocritics disputed the ~~Chinese~~vulnerability ~~government,~~of ~~demolition~~old ~~and~~city ~~rebuilding~~buildings ~~was~~to ~~necessary~~earthquakes ~~because~~and said the ~~entire~~rebuilding ~~Kashgar~~was ~~area~~done ~~was~~partially "in aorder ~~special~~to ~~area~~fulfill inthe ~~danger~~political goal of ~~earthquakes~~eroding Uyghur culture." Over the last two decades, similar demolition of historic architecture followed by their replacement ~~with~~by ~~"shopping~~more ~~malls~~commercialized ~~and highways"~~properties have also been ongoing in the rest of China, often with inadequate consultation of local residents.<ref>~~Nick~~{{Cite ~~Holdstock~~news |last=Levin|first=Dan |date=5 March 2014 |title=China Remodels an Ancient Silk Road City, "and an Ethnic Rift Widens |work=[~~http~~[New York Times]] |url=https://www.~~lrb~~nytimes.~~co.uk~~com/~~blog~~2014/~~2012~~03/0506/25world/~~nick-holdstock~~asia/~~razing~~china-~~kashgar/~~remodels-an-ancient-silk-road-city-and-an-ethnic-rift-widens.html ~~Razing~~|url-status=live ~~Kashgar]~~|access-date=7 August 2024 ~~{{Webarchive~~|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/~~20120529050643~~20230405082443/~~http~~https://www.~~lrb~~nytimes.~~co.uk~~com/~~blog~~2014/~~2012~~03/0506/25world/~~nick-holdstock~~asia/~~razing~~china-~~kashgar/~~remodels-an-ancient-silk-road-city-and-an-ethnic-rift-widens.html |archive-date=~~2012-05-29~~5 April 2023}},"</ref><ref>{{cite ~~LRB~~news|last=Hammer|first=Joshua|title=Demolishing ~~blog, '~~Kashgar'~~London~~s ~~Review~~History|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/demolishing-kashgars-history-7324895/|work=Smithsonian ofMagazine|date=March ~~Books'', 25 May 2012.~~2010}}</ref> ~~Critics~~The [[Uyghur Human Rights Project]] have called the destruction of the old city part of a campaign of [[Persecution of Uyghurs in China|cultural genocide]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lipes |first=Joshua |date=5 June 2020 |title=Kashgar's Old City Destruction Emblematic of Beijing's Cultural Campaign Against Uyghurs: Report |work=[[Radio Free Asia]] |url=https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/destruction-06052020164031.html |url-status=live |access-date=7 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606083152/https://www.rfa.org/english/news/uyghur/destruction-06052020164031.html |archive-date=6 June 2020}}</ref>

In July 2014, the Imam of the Id Kah Mosque, Juma Tayir, [[Assassination of Juma Tayir|was assassinated in Kashgar]] by Uyghur extremists.<ref>{{cite news |last=Martina |first=Michael |title=Imams' killing in China may be aimed at making Muslim Uighurs choose sides |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-xinjiang/imams-killing-in-china-may-be-aimed-at-making-muslim-uighurs-choose-sides-idUSKBN0G13QY20140801/ |work=Reuters |date=August 1, 2014 |access-date=August 7, 2024}}</ref> On 21 October 2014, [[Aqqash Township]] (Akekashi) was transferred from [[Shufu County]] to Kashgar.<ref name="xzqhkonaxahar">{{cite web|url=http://www.xzqh.org/html/show/xj/21330.html|script-title=zh:疏附县历史沿革|website=XZQH.org|date=14 November 2014|access-date=5 April 2020|quote={{lang|zh-hans|2014年，自治区政府（新政函[2014]8号）同意撤销乌帕尔乡，设立乌帕尔镇。2014年10月21日，自治区政府（新政函[2014]194号）同意将疏附县阿克喀什乡划归喀什市管辖。}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108185411/http://www.xzqh.org/html/show/xj/21330.html|archive-date=8 November 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Climate==

Line 590 ⟶ 591:

{{Weather box

| width = auto

| location = Kashgar, elevation {{convert|1386|m|ft|abbr= ~~Kashgar~~on}}, (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951-present)

| metric first = Y

| single line = Y

| collapsed = Y

| Jan record high C = 18.9

| Feb record high C = 19.8

Line 601 ⟶ 602:

| May record high C = 34.5

| Jun record high C = 38.2

| Jul record high C = 3840.21

| Aug record high C = 39.2

| Sep record high C = 35.0

Line 607 ⟶ 608:

| Nov record high C = 25.2

| Dec record high C = 19.2

| Jan record low C = ~~−22~~−24.34

| Feb record low C = −21.8

| Mar record low C = −10.0

Line 619 ⟶ 620:

| Nov record low C = −11.1

| Dec record low C = −21.4

| Jan high C = 0.1

| Feb high C = 6.0

| Mar high C = 15.1

| Apr high C = 22.9

| May high C = 26.9

| Jun high C = 30.5

| Jul high C = 32.1

| Aug high C = 30.7

| Sep high C = 26.6

| Oct high C = 20.2

| Nov high C = 11.4

| Dec high C = 2.1

| Jan mean C = -5.2

| Feb mean C = 0.4

| Mar mean C = 9.2

| Apr mean C = 16.4

| May mean C = 20.4

| Jun mean C = 24.2

| Jul mean C = 25.9

| Aug mean C = 24.5

| Sep mean C = 20.0

| Oct mean C = 13.1

| Nov mean C = 4.8

| Dec mean C = -2.8

| Jan low C = -9.9

| Feb low C = -4.7

| Mar low C = 3.4

| Apr low C = 9.8

| May low C = 14.1

| Jun low C = 17.6

| Jul low C = 19.5

| Aug low C = 18.2

| Sep low C = 13.5

| Oct low C = 6.5

| Nov low C = -0.8

| Dec low C = -6.9

| precipitation colour = green

| Jan precipitation mm = 3.3

| Feb precipitation mm = 6.2

| Mar precipitation mm = 5.7

| Apr precipitation mm = 6.4

| May precipitation mm = 14.0

| Jun precipitation mm = 9.4

| Jul precipitation mm = 10.8

| Aug precipitation mm = 11.4

| Sep precipitation mm = 7.8

| Oct precipitation mm = 4.7

| Nov precipitation mm = 2.8

| Dec precipitation mm = 2.7

| Jan humidity = 65

| Feb humidity = 56

| Mar humidity = 42

| Apr humidity = 35

| May humidity = 37

| Jun humidity = 37

| Jul humidity = 41

| Aug humidity = 47

| Sep humidity = 50

| Oct humidity = 51

| Nov humidity = 56

| Dec humidity = 68

| unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm

| Jan precipitation days = 2.8

| Feb precipitation days = 2.4

| Mar precipitation days = 2.2

| Apr precipitation days = 2.0

| May precipitation days = 4.0

| Jun precipitation days = 4.8

| Jul precipitation days = 4.9

| Aug precipitation days = 5.0

| Sep precipitation days = 3.2

| Oct precipitation days = 1.4

| Nov precipitation days = 0.9

| Dec precipitation days = 2.7

| year precipitation days =

| Jan sun = 159.3

| Feb sun = 168.6

| Mar sun = 201.3

| Apr sun = 233.2

| May sun = 281.3

| Jun sun = 316.8

| Jul sun = 328.2

| Aug sun = 303.6

| Sep sun = 265.4

| Oct sun = 250.4

| Nov sun = 201.4

| Dec sun = 153.1

| year sun =

| Jan percentsun = 52

| Feb percentsun = 55

| Mar percentsun = 54

| Apr percentsun = 58

| May percentsun = 63

| Jun percentsun = 71

| Jul percentsun = 73

| Aug percentsun = 73

| Sep percentsun = 73

| Oct percentsun = 74

| Nov percentsun = 68

| Dec percentsun = 53

| year percentsun =

| Jan snow days = 7.2

| Feb snow days = 4.3

| Mar snow days = 1.3

| Apr snow days = 0.1

| May snow days = 0

| Jun snow days = 0

| Jul snow days = 0

| Aug snow days = 0

| Sep snow days = 0

| Oct snow days = 0

| Nov snow days = 1.0

| Dec snow days = 6.1

| year snow days =

| source 1 = [[China Meteorological Administration]]<ref name="cma graphical">{{cite web |url=http://data.cma.cn/data/weatherBk.html |script-title=zh:中国气象数据网 – WeatherBk Data |publisher=[[China Meteorological Administration]] |language = zh-hans |access-date=10 October 2023}}</ref><ref>

{{cite web|url=https://experience.arcgis.com/template/e724038fda394e9d9b7921f10fd1aa55/page/%E7%BA%AF%E8%A1%A8%E6%A0%BC%E7%BB%9F%E8%AE%A1-(%E5%AF%B9%E6%AF%948110%E5%8F%98%E5%8C%96)/?org=UQmaps |script-title=zh:中国气象数据网|publisher=[[China Meteorological Administration]] |language = zh-hans | access-date =10 October 2023 |title=Experience Template }}</ref><ref name="CMA old">

{{cite web|url=http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3 |script-title=zh:中国地面国际交换站气候标准值月值数据集（1971－2000年）|publisher=[[China Meteorological Administration]] |access-date=25 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055035/http://old-cdc.cma.gov.cn/shuju/search1.jsp?dsid=SURF_CLI_CHN_MUL_MMON_19712000_CES&tpcat=SURF&type=table&pageid=3 |archive-date=21 September 2013 }}</ref>

| source =

}}

Line 1,011 ⟶ 1,013:

* Stein, Aurel M. 1907. [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/ ''Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050204010757/http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/ |date=4 February 2005 }}, 2 vols. Clarendon Press. Oxford.

* Stein, Aurel M. 1921. [http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/ ''Serindia: Detailed report of explorations in Central Asia and westernmost China''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050204010757/http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/ |date=4 February 2005 }}, 5 vols. London & Oxford. Clarendon Press. Reprint: Delhi. Motilal Banarsidass. 1980.

* Tamm, Eric Enno. ''The Horse That Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road and the Rise of Modern China.'' Vancouver: ~~Doulgas~~Douglas & McIntyre, 2010. See also http://horsethatleaps.com/chapter-6/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806130748/http://horsethatleaps.com/chapter-6/ |date=6 August 2010 }}

* Yu, Taishan. 2004. ''A History of the Relationships between the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions''. Sino-Platonic Papers No. 131 March 2004. Dept. of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, University of Pennsylvania.

Line 1,034 ⟶ 1,036:

[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]

[[Category:Populated places in Xinjiang]]

~~[[Category:Ancient peoples of China]]~~

[[Category:Central Asian Buddhist kingdoms]]

[[Category:Central Asian Buddhist sites]]