Lise Meitner: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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'''Lise Meitner''' ({{IPAc-en|'|l|iː|z|ə|_|'|m|aɪ|t|n|ər}} {{respell|LEE|zə|_|MYTE|nər}}, {{IPA-|de|ˈliːzə ˈmaɪtnɐ|lang|De-Lise Meitner.ogg}}; born '''Elise Meitner''', 7 November 1878 – 27 October 1968) was an Austrian [[physicist]] who was instrumental in the discovery of [[protactinium]] and [[discovery of nuclear fission|nuclear fission]].

Completing her doctoral research in 1905, Meitner became the second woman from the [[University of Vienna]] to earn a doctorate in physics. She spent much of her scientific career in [[Berlin]], where she was a physics professor and a department head at the [[Max Planck Institute for Chemistry|Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry]] ~~there~~. She was the first woman to become a full professor of physics in Germany. She lost her positions in 1935 because of the anti-Jewish [[Nuremberg Laws]] of [[Nazi Germany]], and the 1938 [[Anschluss]] resulted in the loss of her Austrian citizenship. On 13–14 July 1938, she fled to the Netherlands with the help of [[Dirk Coster]]. She lived in [[Stockholm]] for many years, ultimately becoming a Swedish citizen in 1949, but relocated to Britain in the 1950s to be with family members.

In mid-1938, Meitner and chemists [[Otto Hahn]] and [[Fritz Strassmann]] at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry demonstrated that [[isotope]]s of [[barium]] could be formed by [[neutron]] bombardment of [[uranium]]. Meitner was informed of their findings by Hahn, and in late December, with her nephew, fellow physicist [[Otto Robert Frisch]], she worked out the physics of this process by correctly interpreting Hahn and Strassmann's experimental data. On 13 January 1939, Frisch replicated the process Hahn and Strassmann had observed. In Meitner and Frisch's report in the February 1939 issue of ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', they gave the process the name "fission". The discovery of nuclear fission led to the development of [[atomic bomb]]s and [[nuclear reactor]]s during [[World War II]].

Meitner did not share the 1944 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for nuclear fission, which was awarded to her long-time collaborator Otto Hahn. Several scientists and journalists have called her exclusion "unjust". According to the Nobel Prize archive, she was nominated 19 times for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry between 1924 and 1948, and 30 times for the Nobel Prize in Physics between 1937 and 1967. Despite not having been awarded the Nobel Prize, Meitner was invited to attend the [[Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting]] in 1962. She received many other honours, including the posthumous naming of element 109 [[meitnerium]] in 1997. Meitner was praised by [[Albert Einstein]] as the "German [[Marie Curie]]"."<ref name="wapost" />

==Early years==

Elise Meitner was born on 7 November 1878 into a Jewish upper-middle-class family at the family home in 27 Kaiser Josefstraße in the [[Leopoldstadt]] district of [[Vienna]], the third of eight children of chess master [[Philipp Meitner]] and his wife Hedwig. The birth register of [[Vienna's Jewish community]] lists her as being born on 17 November 1878, but all other documents list her date of birth as 7 November, which is what she used.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=1}} Her father was one of the first Jewish lawyers admitted to practice in Austria.<ref name="wapost">{{cite news |first=Marcia |last=Bartusiak |author-link=Marcia Bartusiak |title=The Woman Behind the Bomb |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/reviews/lisemeitner.htm |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=17 March 1996 |access-date=28 December 2017 |archive-date=8 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308161333/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/style/longterm/books/reviews/lisemeitner.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> She had two older siblings, Gisela and Auguste (Gusti), and four younger: Moriz (Fritz), Carola (Lola), Frida and Walter; all ultimately pursued an advanced education.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=5–6}} Her father was a [[freethinker]], and she was brought up as such.<ref name="wapost" /> As an adult, she converted to Christianity, following [[Lutheranism]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.orlandoleibovitz.com/Lise_Meitner_and_Nuclear_Fission.html |title= Lise Meitner and Nuclear Fission |website= OrlandoLeibovitz.com |access-date= 9 April 2012 |archive-date= 25 February 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210225011720/http://www.orlandoleibovitz.com/Lise_Meitner_and_Nuclear_Fission.html |url-status= live }}</ref> and was baptised in 1908;<ref>{{cite odnb |last= Roqué |first= Xavier |title= Meitner, Lise (1878–1968), physicist |access-date= 27 October 2009 |url= http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/38821 |doi= 10.1093/ref:odnb/38821 |year= 2004}}</ref>{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=6}} her sisters Gisela and Lola converted to [[Catholicism]] that same year.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=6}} She also adopted the shortened name "Lise".{{sfn|Offereins|2011|pp=69–74}}

==Education==

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===University of Vienna===

[[File:Lise Meitner12.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.0|Meitner in 1906]]

Meitner entered the [[University of Vienna]] in October 1901.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=10}} She was particularly inspired by Ludwig Boltzmann and often spoke with enthusiasm about his lectures.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=12–16}} Her dissertation was supervised by [[Franz Exner]] and his assistant [[Hans Benndorf]].{{sfn|Sime|1996|ppp=17}} Her thesis, titled {{lang|de|Prüfung einer Formel Maxwells}} ("Examination of a [[Maxwell's equations|Maxwell Equation]]"), was submitted on 20 November 1905 and approved on 28 November. She passed an [[oral exam]] from Exner and Boltzmann on 19 December,{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=398}} and was awarded her doctorate on 1 February 1906.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=16}} She became the second woman to earn a [[Doctor of Philosophy|doctoral degree]] in physics at the University of Vienna, after [[Olga Steindler]] who had received her degree in 1903;{{sfn|Sime|2005|p=7}} the third was [[Selma Freud]], who worked in the same laboratory as Meitner, and received hers in 1906.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=398}} Meitner's thesis was published as {{lang|de|Wärmeleitung in inhomogenen Körpern}} ("Thermal Conduction in Inhomogeneous Bodies") on 22 February 1906.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=398}}<ref>{{cite web |last1=Meitner |first1=Lise |title=Wärmeleitung in inhomogenen Körpern |trans-title=Thermal Conduction in Inhomogeneous Bodies |url=https://opacplus.bsb-muenchen.de/title/BV020318720 |publisher=Bayerische Staatsbibliothek |access-date=12 July 2020 |date=1906}}</ref>

[[Paul Ehrenfest]] asked her to investigate an article on [[optics]] by [[Lord Rayleigh]] detailing an experiment that produced results Rayleigh had been unable to explain. She was able to explain the results, and also made predictions based on her explanation, which she then verified experimentally, demonstrating her ability to carry out independent and unsupervised research.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=18–21}} She published the results in her report on "Some Conclusions Derived from the Fresnel Reflection Formula".<ref>{{cite journal |first=Lise |last=Meitner |title=Über einige Folgerungen, die sich aus den Fresnel'schen Reflexionsformeln ergeben |trans-title=Some Conclusions Derived from the Fresnel Reflection Formula |journal=Sitzungsberichte / Akademie der Wissenschaften in Wien, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse. Abteilung ~~IIa~~IIA, Mathematik, Astronomie, Physik, Meteorologie und Technik |volume=115 |date=June 1906 |pppages=259–286 }}</ref> In 1906, while engaged in this research, Meitner was introduced by [[Stefan Meyer (physicist)|Stefan Meyer]] to [[radioactivity]], then a very new field of study. She started with [[alpha particle]]s. In her experiments with [[collimator]]s and metal foil, she found that scattering in a beam of alpha particles increased with the mass of the metal atoms. She submitted her findings to the ''[[Physikalische Zeitschrift]]'' on 29 June 1907. This was one of the experiments that led [[Ernest Rutherford]] to predict the [[nuclear atom]].{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=18–21}}<ref>{{cite journal |title=Über die Zerstreuung der α-Strahlen |trans-title=On the Scattering of α-Rays |language=de |first=L. |last=Meitner |journal=Physikalische Zeitschrift |issn=2366-9373 |date=1 August 1907 |volume=8 |issue=15 |pages=489–496 |url=https://archive.org/details/physikalischeze00unkngoog/page/n73/mode/2up }}</ref>

===Friedrich Wilhelm University===

[[File:Hahn and Meitner in 1912.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Lise Meitner and Otto Hahn in 1912]]

Encouraged and backed by her father's financial support, Meitner entered the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|Friedrich Wilhelm University]] in [[Berlin]], where the renowned physicist [[Max Planck]] taught. Planck invited her to his home, and allowed her to attend his lectures. This was an unusual gesture by Planck, who was on record as opposing the admission of women to universities in general, but apparently recognised Meitner as an exception.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=24–26}} She became friends with Planck's twin daughters Emma and Grete, who were born in 1889, and shared Meitner's love of music.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=38}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Max Planck -– a biographical overview |publisher=Max-Planck Gesellschaft |url=https://www.mpg.de/19252700/max-planck-biographical-overview |access-date=16 July 2024}}</ref>

Attending Planck's lectures did not take up all her time, and Meitner approached [[Heinrich Rubens]], the head of the experimental physics institute, about doing some research. Rubens said that he would be happy for her to work in his laboratory. He also added that [[Otto Hahn]] at the chemistry institute was looking for a physicist to collaborate with. A few minutes later she was introduced to Hahn. He had studied radioactive substances under [[William Ramsay]] and Ernest Rutherford, and was already credited with the discovery of what were then thought to be several new radioactive elements.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=26–27}}{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=50}}{{efn|In fact, they were [[isotope]]s of known elements, but the concept of an isotope, along with the term, was only propounded by [[Frederick Soddy]] in 1913.{{sfn|Hughes|2008|pp=134–135}} }} Hahn was the same age as Meitner, and she noted his informal and approachable manner.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=26–27}}{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=50}} In Montreal, Hahn had become accustomed to collaboration with physicists—including at least one woman, [[Harriet Brooks]].{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=28–29}}

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The arrangement was difficult for Meitner at first. Women were not yet admitted to universities in the [[States of the German Empire|German state]] of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], which included Berlin. Meitner was allowed to work in the wood shop, which had its own external entrance, but she could not enter the rest of the institute, including Hahn's laboratory space upstairs. If she wanted to go to the toilet, she had to use one at the restaurant down the street. The following year, women were admitted to Prussian universities, and Fischer lifted the restrictions, and had women's toilets installed in the building. Not all the chemists were happy about this.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=28–29}} The Institute of Physics was more accepting, and she became friends with the physicists there, including {{ill|Otto von Baeyer|de}}, [[James Franck]], [[Gustav Hertz]], [[Robert Pohl]], Max Planck, {{ill|Peter Pringsheim|de}} and [[Wilhelm Westphal]].{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=65}}

During the first years Meitner worked with Hahn, they co-authored nine papers: three in 1908 and six in 1909. Together with Hahn, she discovered and developed a physical separation method known as [[atomic recoil|radioactive recoil]], in which a [[daughter nucleus]] is forcefully ejected as it recoils at the moment of decay. While Hahn was more concerned with discovering new elements (now known to be isotopes), Meitner was more interested in understanding their radiation. She observed that radioactive recoil, which had been discovered by Harriet Brooks in 1904, could be a new way of detecting radioactive substances. They soon discovered two more new isotopes, bismuth-211 and thallium-207.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|pp=58–64}}<ref>{{cite web |first=Dava |last=Dava Sobel |author-link=Dava Sobel |date=2 July 2020 |title=Harriet Brooks |publisher=Linda Hall Library |url=https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/harriet-brooks/ |access-date=21 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Brooks |first=H. A. |author-link=Harriet Brooks |title=A Volatile Product from Radium |journal=Nature |issn=0028-0836 |volume=70 |issue=1812 |ppage=270 |date=21 July 1904 |doi=10.1038/070270b0 }}</ref> Meitner was particularly interested in beta particles. By this time, they were known to be [[electron]]s. Alpha particles were emitted with characteristic energy, and she expected that this would be true of beta particles too. Hahn and Meitner carefully measured the absorption of beta particles by aluminium, but the results were puzzling. In 1914, [[James Chadwick]] found that electrons emitted from the nucleus formed a continuous spectrum, but Meitner found this hard to believe, as it seemed to contradict [[quantum physics]], which held that electrons in an atom can only occupy discrete energy states (quanta).{{sfn|Watkins|1983|pp=551–553}}

===Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry===

[[File:Berliner Physiker u Chemiker 1920.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Physicists and chemists in Berlin in 1920. Front row, left to right: [[Hertha Sponer]], [[Albert Einstein]], Ingrid Franck, [[James Franck]], Lise Meitner, [[Fritz Haber]], and [[Otto Hahn]]. Back row, left to right: [[Walter Grotrian]], [[Wilhelm Westphal]], {{ill|Otto von Baeyer|de}}, {{ill|Peter Pringsheim|de}} and [[Gustav Hertz]] ]]

In 1912, Hahn and Meitner moved to the newly founded [[Max Planck Institute for Chemistry|Kaiser Wilhelm Institute (KWI) for Chemistry]] in Berlin. Hahn accepted an offer from Fischer to become a junior assistant in charge of its [[radiochemistry]] section, the first laboratory of its kind in Germany. The job came with the title of "professor" and a salary of 5,000 marks per annum ({{Inflation|DE|5,000|1912|fmt=eq|cursign=€|r=-3}}). Unlike the universities, the privately funded KWI had no policies excluduing women, but Meitner worked without pay as a "guest" in Hahn's section.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Sime|2005|p=11}} She may have encountered financial difficulties after the death of her father in 1910. Fearing she might return to Vienna, Planck appointed her as his assistant at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in the Friedrich Wilhelm University. As such, she marked his students' papers. It was her first paid position. Assistant was the lowest rung on the academic ladder, and Meitner was the first female scientific assistant in Prussia.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=44–45}}{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=66}}

Proud officials presented Meitner to [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] at the official opening of the KWI for Chemistry on 23 October 1912.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|pp=70–71}} The following year she became a ''Mitglied'' (associate) like Hahn (although her salary was still less),{{sfn|Sime|2005|p=11}} and the radioactivity section became the Hahn-Meitner Laboratory. Meitner celebrated with a dinner party at the [[Hotel Adlon]]. Hahn and Meitner's salaries would soon be dwarfed by royalties from [[mesothorium]] ("middle thorium", radium-228, also called "German radium") produced for medical purposes, for which Hahn received 66,000 marks in 1914 ({{Inflation|DE|66,000|1914|fmt=eq|cursign=€|r=-3}}). He gave ten per cent to Meitner.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=47}} In 1914, Meitner was offered an academic position in [[Prague]], which was then part of her country of [[Austria-Hungary]]. Planck made it clear to Fischer that he did not want Meitner to leave, and Fischer arranged for her salary to be doubled to 3,000 marks ({{Inflation|DE|3,000|1914|fmt=eq|cursign=€|r=-3}}).{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=48}}

The move to new accommodation was fortunate, as the wood shop had become thoroughly contaminated by radioactive liquids that had been spilt, and radioactive gases that had vented and decayed then settled as radioactive dust, making sensitive measurements impossible. To ensure that their clean new laboratories stayed that way, Hahn and Meitner instituted strict procedures. Chemical and physical measurements were conducted in different rooms, people handling radioactive substances had to follow protocols that included not shaking hands, and rolls of toilet paper were hung next to every telephone and door handle. Strongly radioactive substances were stored in the old wood shop, and later in a purpose-built [[radium]] house on the institute grounds.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=48}}

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For this more pitchblende was required. Meitner went to Vienna, where she met with Stefan Meyer. The export of uranium from Austria was forbidden due to wartime restrictions, but Meyer was able to offer her a kilogram of uranium residue, pitchblende from which the uranium had been removed, which was actually better for her purpose. The tests showed that the alpha activity was not due to these substances. All that now remained was to find evidence of actinium. For this yet more pitchblende was required, but this time Meyer was unable to assist, as the export was now prohibited. Meitner managed to obtain 100 g of "double residue"—pitchblende without uranium or radium—from [[Friedrich Oskar Giesel]] and began tests with 43 grams of it, but its composition was different, and at first her tests did not work. With Giesel's help, she was able to produce a pure product that was strongly radioactive. By December 1917 she was able to isolate both the mother isotope and its actinium daughter product. She submitted their findings for publication in March 1918.{{sfn|Sime|1986|pp=653–657}}<ref>{{citation |first=Lise |last=Meitner |author-link=Lise Meitner |title=Die Muttersubstanz des Actiniums, Ein Neues Radioaktives Element von Langer Lebensdauer |trans-title=The Parent Substance of Actinium, a New Radioactive Element with a Long Lifetime |volume=19 |issue=11–12 |pages=169–173 |date=1 June 1918 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bbpc.19180241107 |access-date=3 June 2021 |journal=Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie und angewandte physikalische Chemie |doi=10.1002/bbpc.19180241107 |s2cid=94448132 |archive-date=16 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016222127/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bbpc.19180241107 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Although Fajans and Göhring had been the first to discover the element, custom required that an element was represented by its longest-lived and most abundant isotope, and brevium did not seem appropriate. Fajans agreed to Meitner naming the element "protoactinium" (subsequently shortened to [[protactinium]]), and assigning it the chemical symbol Pa. In June 1918, Soddy and [[John Arnold Cranston|John Cranston]] announced that they had independently extracted a sample of the isotope, but unlike Meitner they were unable to describe its characteristics. They acknowledged Meitner's priority, and agreed to the name. The connection to uranium remained a mystery, as neither of the two known [[isotopes of uranium]] ([[uranium-234]] and [[uranium-238]]) decayed into protactinium. It remained unsolved until [[uranium-235]] was discovered by [[Arthur Jeffrey Dempster]] in 1935.{{sfn|Sime|1986|pp=653–657}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dempster |first=A. |author-link=Arthur Jeffrey Dempster |title=Isotopic Constitution of Uranium |journal=Nature |issn=0028-0836 |volume=136 |issue=180 |date=3 August 1935 |page=180 |doi=10.1038/136180a0 }}</ref>

==Beta radiation==

In 1921, Meitner accepted an invitation from [[Manne Siegbahn]] to come to Sweden and give a series of lectures on radioactivity as a visiting professor at [[Lund University]]. She found that very little research had been done on radioactivity in Sweden, but she was eager to learn about [[X-ray spectroscopy]], which was Siegbahn's specialty. At his laboratory, she met a Dutch doctoral candidate, [[Dirk Coster]], who was studying X-ray spectroscopy, and his wife Miep, who was working on her doctorate in Indonesian language and culture. Armed with her newly acquired knowledge of X-ray spectroscopy, Meitner took a fresh look at the beta-ray spectra when she returned to Berlin.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=653–657}} It was known that some beta emission was primary, with electrons being ejected directly from the nucleus, and some was secondary, in which alpha particles from the nucleus knocked electrons out of orbit. Meitner was sceptical of Chadwick's claim that the [[spectral line]]s were entirely due to secondary electrons, while the primary ones formed a continuous spectrum.{{sfn|Watkins|1983|pp=552–553}} Using techniques developed by [[Jean Danysz]], she examined the spectra of lead-210, [[radium-226]] and [[thorium-238]].{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=86}} Meitner discovered the cause of the emission of electrons from surfaces of atoms with "signature" energies, now known as the [[Auger-Meitner effect]], in 1922.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=90}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1 =Meitner |first1=L. |doi=10.1007/BF01326962 |title=Über die Entstehung der β-Strahl-Spektren radioaktiver Substanzen |language=de |trans-title=On the origin of the β-ray spectra of radioactive substances |journal=Zeitschrift für Physik |issn=0044-3328 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=131–144 |year=1922 |bibcode=1922ZPhy....9..131M |s2cid=121637546 }}</ref> The effect is co-named for [[Pierre Victor Auger]], who independently discovered it in 1923.<ref>{{cite journal |first=P. |last=Auger |author-link=Pierre Victor Auger |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3130n.image.f187.langFR |title=Sur les rayons β secondaires produits dans un gaz par des rayons X |language=fr |trans-title=On the secondary β-rays produced in a gas by X-rays |journal=Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l'Académie des sciences |volume=177 |date=1923 |pages=169–171 |access-date=30 May 2011 |archive-date=15 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171015233109/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3130n.image.f187.langFR |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Meitner published before Auger, but the effect does not bear her name. The issue of whether Meitner's name should have been included is examined in: {{cite journal |title=Pierre Auger – Lise Meitner: Comparative contributions to the Auger effect |first=Olivier Hardouin |last=Duparc |journal=International Journal of Materials Research |issn=1862-5282 |volume=100 |issue=9 |date=2009 |pages=1162–1166 |doi=10.3139/146.110163|doi-broken-date=26 August 2024 |bibcode=2009IJMR..100.1162H |s2cid=229164774 }}, {{cite journal |title=A Renaming Proposal: "The Auger–Meitner effect" |first1=Demetrios |last1=Matsakis |first2=Anthea |last2=Coster |first3=Brenda |last3=Laster |first4=Ruth |last4=Sime |author-link4=Ruth Lewin Sime |journal=Physics Today |issn=0031-9228 |volume=72 |issue=9 |pages=10–11 |date=September 2019 |doi=10.1063/PT.3.4281}} and {{cite journal |first=Richard |last=Sietmann |year=1988 |journal=Physics Bulletin |title=False Attribution: a Female Physicist's Fate |issn=0031-9112 |volume=39 |issue=8 |pages=316–317 |doi=10.1088/0031-9112/39/8/017 }}</ref>

[[File:Bohr Heisenberg Pauli Meitner u.a. 1937 (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|At a conference in 1937, Meitner shares the front row with (left to right) [[Niels Bohr]], [[Werner Heisenberg]], [[Wolfgang Pauli]], [[Otto Stern]], [[Rudolf Ladenburg]] and [[Jacob Christian Georg Jacobsen]]; [[Hilde Levi]] (at the very back) is the only other woman in the room.]]

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[[Adolf Hitler]] was sworn in as the [[Chancellor of Germany]] on 30 January 1933, as his [[Nazi Party]] (NSDAP) was now the largest party in the ''[[Reichstag (Weimar Republic)|Reichstag]]''.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=135}} The 7 April 1933 [[Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service]] removed Jews from the civil service, which included academia. Meitner never tried to conceal her Jewish descent, but initially was exempt from its impact on multiple grounds: she had been employed before 1914, had served in the military during the World War, was an Austrian rather than a German citizen, and the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute was a government-industry partnership.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=138–139}} However, she was dismissed from her adjunct professorship on 6 September on the grounds that her World War I service was not at the front, and she had not completed her habilitation until 1922. This had no effect on her salary or work at the KWI for Chemistry.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=150}} [[Carl Bosch]], the director of [[IG Farben]], a major sponsor of the KWI for Chemistry, assured Meitner that her position there was safe.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=138–139}} Although Hahn and Meitner remained in charge, their assistants, Otto Erbacher and Kurt Philipp respectively, who were both NSDAP members, were given increasing influence over the day-to-day running of the institute.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=153}}

Others were not so fortunate; her nephew [[Otto Robert Frisch]] was dismissed from his post in the Institute for Physical Chemistry at the [[University of Hamburg]], as was [[Otto Stern]], the director of the institute. Stern found Frisch a position with [[Patrick Blackett]] at [[Birkbeck College]] in England,{{sfn|Frisch|1979|pp=51–52}} and he later worked at the [[Niels Bohr Institute]] in Copenhagen from 1934 to 1939.{{sfn|Frisch|1979|p=81}} [[Fritz Strassman]] had come to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry to study under Hahn to improve his employment prospects. He declined a lucrative offer of employment because it required political training and Nazi Party membership, and resigned from the [[Society of German Chemists]] when it became part of the Nazi [[German Labour Front]] rather than become a member of a Nazi-controlled organisation. As a result, he could neither work in the chemical industry nor receive his habilitation. Meitner persuaded Hahn to hire him as an assistant. Soon he would be credited as a third collaborator on the papers they produced, and would sometimes even be listed first.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=156–157, 169}}{{sfn|Walker|2006|p=122}} Between 1933 and 1935, Meitner published exclusively in the journal ''[[Naturwissenschaften]]'', as its editor [[Arnold Berliner]] was Jewish, and he continued to accept submissions from Jewish scientists. This generated a boycott of the publication, and in August 1935 the publisher, [[Springer-Verlag]], fired Berliner.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=151–152}}

==Transmutation==

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On 11 July, Coster arrived in Berlin, where he stayed with Debye.{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=265}} The following morning, Meitner arrived early at the KWI for Chemistry, and Hahn briefed her on the plan. To avoid suspicion, she maintained her usual routine, remaining at the institute until 20:00 correcting one of the associate's papers for publication. Hahn and [[Paul Rosbaud]] helped her pack two small suitcases, carrying only summer clothes. Hahn gave her a diamond ring he had inherited from his mother in case of emergency; she took only 10 marks in her purse ({{Inflation|DE|10|1938|fmt=eq|cursign=€|r=-1}}). She then spent the night at Hahn's house. The next morning Meitner met Coster at the railway station, where they pretended to have met by chance. They travelled on a lightly used line to [[Bad Nieuweschans railway station]] on the border, which they crossed without incident;{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=266}} the German border guards may have thought that Meitner was the wife of a professor.{{sfn|Sime|1990|p=267}} A telegram from Pauli informed Coster that he was now "as famous for the abduction of Lise Meitner as for the discovery of hafnium".{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=205}}

Meitner learned on 26 July that Sweden had granted her permission to enter on her Austrian passport, and two days later she flew to Copenhagen, where she was greeted by Frisch, and stayed with Niels and [[Margrethe Bohr]] at their holiday house in [[Tisvilde]]. On 1 August she ~~took~~travelled ~~the~~by train and steamship to [[Göteborg]] station in Sweden, where she was met at by [[Eva von Bahr (physicist)|Eva von Bahr]]. They took a train, and then a steamer, to von Bahr's home in [[Kungälv]], where she stayed until September.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=207}} Hahn told everyone at the KWI for Chemistry that Meitner had gone to Vienna to visit her relatives, and a few days later the institute had closed for the summer ~~vacation~~. On 23 August, she wrote to Bosch requesting retirement.{{sfn|Sime|1996|ppp=210}} He tried to ship her belongings to Sweden, but the Reich Ministry of Education insisted they remain in Germany.{{sfn|Sime|1990|pp=215–216}}

Meitner was also concerned about her family in Austria. One of her first actions in Sweden was to apply for a Swedish immigration permit for Gusti and her husband Justinian (Jutz) Frisch.{{sfn|Sime|1990|pp=215–216}} Hahn selected [[Josef Mattauch]] to replace her as head of the physics section, and went to Vienna to offer him the job. While there he dined with Meitner's sisters Gusti and Gisela and their husbands Jutz Frisch and Karl Lion on 9 November. The next day Gusti informed him that Frisch had been arrested. That day, Meitner arrived in Copenhagen; arranging a travel visa had been difficult with her invalid Austrian passport. Hahn joined her in Copenhagen on 13 November, and had discussions about the uranium research with Meitner, Bohr and Otto Robert Frisch.{{sfn|Sime|1990|pp=226–228}}

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==Nobel Prize==

Despite the many honours that Meitner received in her lifetime, she did not receive the Nobel Prize while it was awarded to Otto Hahn for the discovery of nuclear fission. She was nominated 49 times for Physics and Chemistry Nobel Prizes but never won.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Nobel prize – Nomination archive – Lise Meitner|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6097/|access-date=30 August 2022 |~~website~~publisher=~~www.nobelprize.org~~Nobel Foundation |date=April 2020 |archive-date=6 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306004948/https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6097/|url-status=live}}</ref> On 15 November 1945, the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] announced that Hahn had been awarded the 1944 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for "his discovery of the fission of heavy atomic nuclei".<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1944 |publisher=Nobel Foundation |url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1944/index.html |access-date=26 August 2011 |archive-date=25 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081225083657/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1944/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>{{efn|The Nobel Committee had decided to defer the 1944 award for one year due to the war.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}} }} Meitner was the one who told Hahn and Strassman to test their radium in more detail, and it was she who told Hahn that it was possible for the nucleus of uranium to disintegrate. Without these contributions of Meitner, Hahn would not have found that the uranium nucleus can split in half.{{sfn|Sime|1989|pp=373–376}}

In 1945 the [[Nobel Committee for Chemistry]] in Sweden that selected the Nobel Prize in Chemistry decided to award that prize solely to Hahn, who found out from a newspaper while detained in [[Farm Hall]] in England. In the 1990s, the long-sealed records of the Nobel Committee's proceedings became public, and the comprehensive biography of Meitner published in 1996 by [[Ruth Lewin Sime]] took advantage of this unsealing to reconsider Meitner's exclusion.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}} In a 1997 article in the [[American Physical Society]] journal ''[[Physics Today]]'', Sime and her colleagues Elisabeth Crawford and Mark Walker wrote: {{blockquote|It appears that Lise Meitner did not share the 1944 prize because the structure of the Nobel committees was ill-suited to assess interdisciplinary work; because the members of the chemistry committee were unable or unwilling to judge her contribution fairly; and because during the war the Swedish scientists relied on their own limited expertise. Meitner's exclusion from the chemistry award may well be summarized as a mixture of disciplinary bias, political obtuseness, ignorance, and haste.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}}}}

[[Max Perutz]], the 1962 Nobel Prize for chemistry winner reached a similar conclusion: {{blockquote|Having been locked up in the Nobel Committee's files these fifty years, the documents leading to this unjust award now reveal that the protracted deliberations by the Nobel jury were hampered by lack of appreciation both of the joint work that had preceded the discovery and of Meitner's written and verbal contributions after her flight from Berlin.{{sfn|Perutz|2002|p=27}}<ref>{{cite news |last=Perutz |first=Max |title=A Passion for Science |newspaper=[[The New York Review of Books]] |date=20 February 1997 |url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1997/02/20/a-passion-for-science/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=26 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226124222/https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1997/02/20/a-passion-for-science/ |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

The five-member physics committee included Manne Siegbahn; his former student Erik Hulthén, the professor of experimental physics at [[Uppsala University]]; and Axel Lindh, who eventually succeeded Hulthén. All three were part of the Siegbahn school of x-ray spectroscopy. The poor relationship between Siegbahn and Meitner was a factor here, as was the bias towards experimental rather than theoretical physics.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}}<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/02/science/lise-meitner-fission-nobel.html | title=Why the 'Mother of the Atomic Bomb' Never Won a Nobel Prize |newspaper=The New York Times | date=2 October 2023 | last1=Miller | first1=Katrina }}</ref> In his report on the work of Meitner and Frisch, Hulthén relied on pre-war papers. He did not think that their work was groundbreaking and argued that the prize for physics was given for experimental rather than theoretical work, which had not been the case for many years.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}}▼

▲The five-member physics committee included Manne Siegbahn; his former student Erik Hulthén, the professor of experimental physics at [[Uppsala University]]; and Axel Lindh, who eventually succeeded Hulthén. All three were part of the Siegbahn school of xX-ray spectroscopy. The poor relationship between Siegbahn and Meitner was a factor here, as was the bias towards experimental rather than theoretical physics.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}}<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/02/science/lise-meitner-fission-nobel.html | title=Why the 'Mother of the Atomic Bomb' Never Won a Nobel Prize |newspaper=The New York Times | date=2 October 2023 | last1=Miller | first1=Katrina |access-date=8 August 2024 }}</ref> In his report on the work of Meitner and Frisch, Hulthén relied on pre-war papers. He did not think that their work was groundbreaking and argued that the prize for physics was given for experimental rather than theoretical work, which had not been the case for many years.{{sfn|Crawford|Sime|Walker|1997|pp=26–32}}

At the time Meitner herself wrote in a letter: "Surely Hahn fully deserved the Nobel Prize for chemistry. There is really no doubt about it. But I believe that Frisch and I contributed something not insignificant to the clarification of the process of uranium fission—how it originates and that it produces so much energy and that was something very remote to Hahn."{{sfn|Sexl|Hardy|2002|p=119}}{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=327}} Hahn's Nobel Prize was long expected; both he and Meitner had been nominated for both the chemistry and the physics prizes several times even before the discovery of nuclear fission. According to the Nobel Prize archive, she was nominated 19 times for Nobel Prize in Chemistry between 1924 and 1948, and 30 times for Nobel Prize in Physics between 1937 and 1967. Her nominators included [[Arthur Compton]], Dirk Coster, Kasimir Fajans, James Franck, Otto Hahn, [[Oscar Klein]], Niels Bohr, Max Planck and [[Max Born]].<ref name="Hahn nominations">{{cite web |title=Nomination Database: Otto Hahn |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=3787 |publisher=Nobel Media AB |date=9 June 2020 |access-date=14 June 2017 |archive-date=20 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620174922/https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=3787 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Meitner nominations">{{cite web |title=Nomination Database: Lise Meitner |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6097 |publisher=Nobel Media AB |date=9 June 2020 |access-date=14 June 2017 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612011202/https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=6097 |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite not having been awarded the Nobel Prize, Meitner was invited to attend the [[Lindau Nobel Laureate Meeting]] in 1962.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lise Meitner – Fame without a Nobel Prize |date=5 November 2015 |first=Stephanie |last=Hanel |publisher=The Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings |url=https://www.lindau-nobel.org/lise-meitner-fame-without-a-nobel-prize/ |access-date=11 July 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803121433/https://www.lindau-nobel.org/lise-meitner-fame-without-a-nobel-prize/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

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On 14 January 1939, Meitner learned that her brother-in-law Jutz had been released from [[Dachau concentration camp|Dachau]] and he and her sister Gusti were permitted to emigrate to Sweden.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=247}} Jutz's boss, [[Gottfried Bermann]], had escaped to Sweden,{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=247}} and he offered Jutz his old job back at the publishing firm if he was able to come. Niels Bohr interceded with a Swedish official, [[Supreme Court of Sweden|Justitieråd]] Alexandersson, who said that Jutz would receive a labour permit on arrival in Sweden. He worked there until he was pensioned off in 1948, and then moved to Cambridge to join Otto Robert Frisch.{{sfn|Frisch|1979|pp=205–207}} Her sister Gisela and brother-in-law Karl Lion moved to England,{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=215}} and Meitner also considered moving there. She visited Cambridge in July 1939 and accepted an offer from [[William Lawrence Bragg]] and [[John Cockcroft]] of a position at the [[Cavendish Laboratory]] on a three-year contract with [[Girton College, Cambridge]], but the [[Second World War]] broke out in September 1939 before she could make the move.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=278}}

In Sweden, Meitner continued her research as best she could. She measured the neutron cross sections of thorium, lead and uranium using [[dysprosium]] as a neutron detector,{{sfn|Sime|1994|p=697}} an assay technique pioneered by George de Hevesy and [[Hilde Levi]].{{sfn|Frisch|1979|pp=88–90}} She was able to arrange for Hedwig Kohn, who faced deportation to Poland, to come to Sweden, and eventually to emigrate to the United States, travelling via the [[Soviet Union]]. She was unsuccessful in bringing Stefen Meyer out of Germany,{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=285–288}} but he managed to survive the war.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=313}} She declined an offer to join Frisch on the [[British contribution to the Manhattan Project]] at the [[Los Alamos Laboratory]], declaring "I will have nothing to do with a bomb!"{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=305}} She later said that the [[atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] had come as a surprise to her, and that she was "sorry that the bomb had to be invented".{{sfn|Dawidoff|1994|p=228}} After the war, Meitner acknowledged her own moral failing in staying in Germany from 1933 to 1938. She wrote: "It was not only stupid but very wrong that I did not leave at once."{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=310}} She ~~not only~~ regretted her own inaction during this period, ~~she~~and was also bitterly critical of Hahn, Max von Laue, [[Werner Heisenberg]], and other German scientists. In a June 1945 letter addressed to Hahn, that he never received, she wrote: {{blockquote|You all worked for Nazi Germany. And you did not even try passive resistance. Granted, to absolve your conscience you helped some oppressed person here and there, but millions of innocent human beings were murdered and there was no protest. Here in neutral Sweden, long before the end of the war, there was discussion of what should be done with German scholars once the war is over. What then must the English and Americans be thinking? I and many others are of the opinion that the one path for you would be to deliver an open statement that you are aware that through your passivity you share responsibility for what has happened, and that you have the need to work for what can be done to make amends. But many think it is too late for that. These people say that first you betrayed your friends, then your men and your children in that you let them stake their lives on a criminal war – and finally that you betrayed Germany itself, because when the war was already quite hopeless, you never once spoke out against the meaningless destruction of Germany. That sounds pitiless but nevertheless I believe that the reason I write this to you is true friendship. In the last few days one had heard of the unbelievably gruesome things in the concentration camps; it overwhelms everything one previously feared. When I heard on English radio a very detailed report by the English and Americans about [[Belsen]] and [[Buchenwald]], I began to cry out loud and lay awake all night. And if you had seen those people who were brought here from the camps. One should take a man like Heisenberg and millions like him, and force them to look at these camps and the martyred people. The way he turned up in Denmark in 1941 is unforgettable.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=310}} }}

In the aftermath of the bombing of Hiroshima, Meitner ~~found that she had become~~became a celebrity. She had a radio interview with [[Eleanor Roosevelt]], and a few days later another one with a radio station in New York, during which she heard her sister Frida's voice for the first time in years.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=310}} "I am of Jewish descent", she told Frida, "I am not Jewish by belief, know nothing of the history of Judaism, and do not feel closer to Jews than to other people."{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=315–316}} On 25 January 1946, Meitner arrived in New York, where she was greeted by her sisters Lola and Frida, and by Frisch, who had made the two-day train trip from Los Alamos. Lola's husband [[Rudolf Allers]] arranged a visiting professorship for Meitner at the [[Catholic University of America]]. Meitner lectured at [[Princeton University]], [[Harvard University]] and [[Columbia University]], and discussed physics with Albert Einstein, [[Hermann Weyl]], [[Tsung-Dao Lee]], [[Yang Chen-Ning]] and [[Isidor Isaac Rabi]]. She went to [[Durham, North Carolina]] and saw Hertha Sponer and Hedwig Kohn, and spent an evening in Washington, DC, with James Chadwick, who was now the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project. She also met the project's director, [[Major General (United States)|Major General]] [[Leslie Groves]]. She spoke at [[Smith College]], and went to Chicago, where she met Enrico Fermi, [[Edward Teller]], [[Victor Weisskopf]] and Leo Szilard.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=330–333}} On 8 July, Meitner boarded the {{RMS|Queen Mary||6}} for England, where she met with [[Erwin Schrödinger]], Wolfgang Pauli and Max Born. There were belated celebrations for the 300th birthday of [[Isaac Newton]], but the only German invited to attend was Max Planck.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=334–335}}

[[File:Chemist Lise Meitner with students.jpg|thumb|left|Meitner with students on the steps of the chemistry building at [[Bryn Mawr College]] in April 1959]]

For her friends in Sweden, Siegbahn's opposition to Meitner's Nobel Prize was the final straw, and they resolved to get her a better position. In 1947, Meitner moved to the [[Royal Institute of Technology]] (KTH) in Stockholm, where {{ill|Gudmund Borelius|sv}} established a new facility for atomic research. There had been scant nuclear physics research in Sweden, which was blamed on Siegbahn's lack of support for Meitner's work, and now such knowledge seemed vital for Sweden's future. At the KTH, Meitner had three rooms, two assistants, and access to technicians, with the [[Sigvard Eklund]] occupying the room next door. The intention was that Meitner would have the salary and title of a "research professor"—one without teaching duties.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=347–348}}

The professorship fell through when the [[Ministry of Education and Research (Sweden)|Minister for Education]], [[Tage Erlander]], unexpectedly became the [[Prime Minister of Sweden]] in 1946, but Borelius and Klein ensured that she had the salary of a professor, if not the title.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=358–361}} In 1949, she became a Swedish citizen, but without surrendering her Austrian citizenship thanks to a special act passed by the [[Riksdag]]. Plans were approved for [[R1 (nuclear reactor)|R1]], Sweden's first nuclear reactor, in 1947, with Eklund as the project director, and Meitner worked with him on its design and construction. In her last scientific papers in 1950 and 1951, she applied [[Magic number (physics)|magic numbers]] to nuclear fission.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=358–361}} She retired in 1960 and moved to the UK where many of her relatives were.<ref>{{cite magazine |first=Richard |last=Webb |title=Lise Meitner -– Physicist who co-discovered nuclear fission |magazine= New Scientist |url=https://www.newscientist.com/people/lise-meitner/ |access-date=9 July 2024}}</ref>

In the 1950s and 1960s, Meitner enjoyed visiting Germany and staying with Hahn and his family for several days on different occasions.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=365}} Hahn wrote in his memoirs that he and Meitner had remained lifelong close friends.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=51}} Even though their friendship was full of trials, arguably more so experienced by Meitner, she "never voiced anything but deep affection for Hahn".{{sfn|Cropper|2004|p=343}} On occasions such as their 70th, 75th, 80th and 85th birthdays, they addressed recollections in each other's honour. Hahn emphasised Meitner's intellectual productivity, and work such as her research on the nuclear shell model, always passing over the reasons for her move to Sweden as quickly as possible. She emphasised Hahn's personal qualities, his charm and musical ability.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=365}}

[[File:Lise Meitner Grave.jpg|thumb|Meitner's grave in [[Bramley, Hampshire]]]]

A strenuous trip to the United States in 1964 led to Meitner having a heart attack, which she spent several months recovering from. Her physical and mental condition was weakened by [[atherosclerosis]]. After breaking her hip in a fall and suffering several small strokes in 1967, Meitner made a partial recovery, but was eventually weakened to the point where she had to move into a Cambridge nursing home.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=379}} Meitner died in her sleep on 27 October 1968 at the age of 89. She was not informed of the deaths of Otto Hahn on 28 July 1968 or his wife Edith on 14 August, as her family believed it would be too much for someone so frail.<ref name="nytobit">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1968/10/28/archives/lise-meitner-dies-atomic-pioneer-89-lise-meitner-physicist-is-dead.html|title=Lise Meitner Dies; Atomic Pioneer, 89. Lise Meitner, Physicist, Is Dead. Paved Way for Splitting of Atom.|date=28 October 1968|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=18 April 2008|archive-date=23 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723065420/https://www.nytimes.com/1968/10/28/archives/lise-meitner-dies-atomic-pioneer-89-lise-meitner-physicist-is-dead.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As was her wish, she was buried in the village of [[Bramley, Hampshire|Bramley]] in Hampshire, at [[St James' Church, Bramley|St James parish church]], close to her younger brother Walter, who had died in 1964.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=380}} Her nephew Frisch composed the inscription on her headstone. It reads:

{{blockquote|Lise Meitner: a physicist who never lost her humanity.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=380}}}}

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[[File:Lise Meitner Denkmal Unter den Linden Berlin (3).JPG|thumb|left|upright|Statue of Meitner by {{ill|Anna Franziska Schwarzbach|de}} at [[Humboldt University of Berlin]] ]]

The [[President of Germany]], [[Theodor Heuss]], awarded Meitner the highest German order for scientists, the peace class of the [[Pour le Mérite]] in 1957, the same year as Hahn.{{sfn|Frisch|1970|p=415}} Meitner became a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1945, and a full member in 1951, permitting her to participate in the Nobel Prize process.{{sfn|Sime|1996|p=359}} Four years later she was elected a [[Foreign Member of the Royal Society]].{{sfn|Frisch|1970|p=405}} She was also elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1960.<ref>{{cite web |title=Members of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences: 1780–2012 |ppage=363 |url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterM.pdf |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences |access-date=29 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180921074103/https://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterM.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2018 }}</ref> She received honorary doctorates from [[Adelphi College]], the [[University of Rochester]], [[Rutgers University]] and Smith College in the United States,{{sfn|Frisch|1970|p=415}} the [[Free University of Berlin]] in Germany,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Emeriti and Honorary Doctors |date=23 January 2020 |publisher=Free University of Berlin |url=https://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/en/forschung/ehemalige-und-ehrendoktoren/index.html |access-date=5 November 2020 |archive-date=26 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026044812/http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/en/forschung/ehemalige-und-ehrendoktoren/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[University of Stockholm]] in Sweden.{{sfn|Frisch|1970|p=415}}

In September 1966 the [[United States Atomic Energy Commission]] jointly awarded the [[Enrico Fermi Award]] to Hahn, Strassmann and Meitner for their discovery of fission. The ceremony was held in the [[Hofburg]] palace in Vienna.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1966/09/24/archives/europeans-receive-fermi-prize-for-nuclear-fission-research.html |access-date=10 June 2020 |title=Europeans Receive Fermi Prize For Nuclear Fission Research |newspaper=The New York Times |date=24 September 1966 |archive-date=10 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610001139/https://www.nytimes.com/1966/09/24/archives/europeans-receive-fermi-prize-for-nuclear-fission-research.html |url-status=live }}</ref> It was the first time that this prize had been awarded to non-Americans, and the first time it was presented to a woman.{{sfn|Hahn|1966|p=183}} Meitner's diploma bore the words: "For pioneering research in the naturally occurring radioactivities and extensive experimental studies leading to the discovery of fission".<ref>{{cite web |title=Fermi Lise Meitner, 1966 |date=28 December 2010 |publisher=U.S. DOE Office of Science |url=https://science.osti.gov/fermi/Award-Laureates/1960s/meitner |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712225418/https://science.osti.gov/fermi/Award-Laureates/1960s/meitner |url-status=live }}</ref> Hahn's diploma was slightly different: "For pioneering research in the naturally occurring radioactivities and extensive experimental studies culminating in the discovery of fission."<ref>{{cite web |title=Fermi Otto Hahn, 1966 |date=28 December 2010 |publisher=U.S. DOE Office of Science |url=https://science.osti.gov/fermi/Award-Laureates/1960s/hahn |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803105432/https://science.osti.gov/fermi/Award-Laureates/1960s/hahn |url-status=live }}</ref> Hahn and Strassmann were present, but Meitner was too ill to attend, so Frisch accepted the award on her behalf.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=379–380}} [[Glenn Seaborg]], the discoverer of plutonium, presented it to her in the home of Max Perutz in Cambridge on 23 October 1966.{{sfn|Sime|1996|pp=379–380}}

[[File:Lise Meitner Denkmal vor dem Lise-Meitner-Wohnheim in Kaiserslautern2.jpg|thumb|upright|Lise Meitner memorial in front of the Lise Meitner dormitory in [[Kaiserslautern]].]]

After her death in 1968, Meitner received many naming honours. In 1997, element 109 was named [[meitnerium]]. She is the first and so far the only non-mythological woman thus exclusively honoured (since [[curium]] was named after both Marie and [[Pierre Curie]]).<ref name="wapost" /><ref name="hahn-nobel-lecture">{{cite web |title=From the natural transmutations of uranium to its artificial fission. Nobel Lecture. |last=Hahn |first=Otto |date=13 December 1946 |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1944/hahn/lecture/ |publisher=Nobel Foundation |access-date=14 October 2020 |archive-date=14 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201014115718/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1944/hahn/lecture/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="otto-hahn-prophysik">{{cite web|title=Otto Hahn – Entdecker der Kernspaltung|author=Hardy, Anne|date=4 March 2004|url=http://www.pro-physik.de/Phy/leadArticle.do?laid=4049|publisher=Pro Physik, Wiley Interscience GmbH|access-date=24 September 2007|language=de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012082818/http://www.pro-physik.de/Phy/leadArticle.do?laid=4049|archive-date=12 October 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> Additional naming honours are the [[Hahn–Meitner-Institut]] in Berlin,<ref>{{cite web |title=Predecessor facility HMI |publisher=Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie |url=https://www.helmholtz-berlin.de/zentrum/forschungszentrum/campus/historie/lise-meitner-campus/index_en.html |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712225418/https://www.helmholtz-berlin.de/zentrum/forschungszentrum/campus/historie/lise-meitner-campus/index_en.html |url-status=live }}</ref> craters [[Meitner (lunar crater)|on the Moon]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Meitner on Moon |publisher=United States Geological Survey |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3807 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712225855/https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3807 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Meitner (crater on Venus)|Venus]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Planetary Names: Crater, craters: Meitner on Venus |publisher=United States Geological Survey |url=https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3808 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715124203/https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/3808 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the main-belt asteroid [[6999 Meitner]].<ref>{{cite web |title=IAU Minor Planet Center |publisher=International Astronomical Union |url=https://minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=6999 |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=20 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320052145/http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=6999 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2000, the [[European Physical Society]] established the biennial [[Lise Meitner Prize]] for excellent research in nuclear science.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eps.org/?NPD_prizes_LMeitner |title=EPS Nuclear Physics Division – Lise Meitner Prize |publisher=European Physical Society |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010211854/http://www.eps.org/?NPD_prizes_LMeitner |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2006 the "Gothenburg Lise Meitner Award" was established by the [[University of Gothenburg]] and [[Chalmers University of Technology]] in Sweden; it is awarded annually to a scientist who has made a breakthrough in physics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chalmers.se/en/centres/gpc/activities/lisemeitner/Pages/default.aspx |title=Gothenburg Lise Meitner Award |publisher=Chalmers University of Technology |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923202245/http://www.chalmers.se/en/centres/gpc/activities/lisemeitner/Pages/default.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> In October 2010, the building at the Free University of Berlin that had once housed the KWI for Chemistry, and had been known as the Otto Hahn Building since 1956, was renamed the Hahn-Meitner Building,<ref>{{cite web |first=Viola |last=Neukam |title='More than Just a Name Change': Freie Universität Renames Otto Hahn Building as Hahn-Meitner Building |date=28 October 2010 |url=https://www.fu-berlin.de/en/presse/informationen/fup/2010/fup_10_326/index.html |publisher=Free University of Berlin |access-date=4 June 2020 |archive-date=3 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803220842/https://www.fu-berlin.de/en/presse/informationen/fup/2010/fup_10_326/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and in July 2014 a statue of Meitner was unveiled in the garden of the Humboldt University of Berlin next to similar statues of [[Hermann von Helmholtz]] and [[Max Planck]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/lise-meitner-grosse-physikerin-spaete-ehrung/10170792.html |title=Große Physikerin, späte Ehrung |trans-title=Great Physicist, Belated Honour |first=Astrid |last=Herbold |newspaper=[[Der Tagesspiegel]] |date=9 July 2014 |language=de |access-date=14 July 2014 |archive-date=14 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714134505/http://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/lise-meitner-grosse-physikerin-spaete-ehrung/10170792.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Schools and streets were named after her in many cities in Austria and Germany,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hh.schule.de/lmg/lmghp/pmwiki.php?n=Schule.Home|title=Lise Meitner Gymnasium: Hamburg|website=www.hh.schule.de|language=de|publisher=Offenes Hamburger|access-date=5 March 2016|archive-date=28 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728235228/http://www.hh.schule.de/lmg/lmghp/pmwiki.php?n=Schule.Home|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hp.lise-meitner-gymnasium.de/|title=Lise-Meitner-Gymnasium|website=hp.lise-meitner-gymnasium.de|publisher=LMG Falkensee|language=de|access-date=5 March 2016|archive-date=4 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094513/http://hp.lise-meitner-gymnasium.de/|url-status=live}}</ref> and a short residential street in Bramley, her resting place, is named Meitner Close.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Lise Meitner |url=https://www.bramleypc.co.uk/attachments/article/623/BPM_October2018.pdf |magazine=The Bramley Magazine |date=October 2018 |ppage=15 |access-date=10 July 2024}}</ref> Since 2008 the [[Austrian Physical Society]] and the German Physical Society have organized the [[Lise Meitner Lectures]], a series of annual public talks given by distinguished female physicists,<ref>{{cite web |title=Lise-Meitner Lectures |publisher=German Physical Society |url=https://www.dpg-physik.de/aktivitaeten-und-programme/vortragsreihen/lise-meitner-lectures/lise-meitner-lectures?set_language=en |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=12 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712230224/https://www.dpg-physik.de/aktivitaeten-und-programme/vortragsreihen/lise-meitner-lectures/lise-meitner-lectures?set_language=en |url-status=live }}</ref> and since 2015 the [[AlbaNova]] University Centre in Stockholm has had an annual [[Lise Meitner Distinguished Lecture]].<ref>{{cite web |title=LiseMeitnerLecture |publisher=Royal Institute of Technology |url=http://www.theophys.kth.se/~egor/LiseMeitnerLecture.html |access-date=12 July 2020 |archive-date=11 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611054853/http://www.theophys.kth.se/~egor/LiseMeitnerLecture.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2016, the [[Institute of Physics]] in the UK established the [[Meitner Medal]] for public engagement within physics.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iop.org/about/awards/subject/widening-participation-public-engagement/page_68106.html |title=Physics education and widening participation within it and public engagement within physics |publisher=Institute of Physics |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-date=24 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824065910/http://www.iop.org/about/awards/subject/widening-participation-public-engagement/page_68106.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2017, the [[Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy]] in the United States named a major nuclear energy research program after her.<ref>{{cite web |title=MEITNER: Modeling-Enhanced Innovations Trailblazing Nuclear Energy Reinvigoration |url=https://arpa-e.energy.gov/?q=arpa-e-programs/meitner |publisher=United States Department of Energy |date=20 October 2017 |access-date=14 October 2021 |archive-date=12 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812160350/https://arpa-e.energy.gov/?q=arpa-e-programs%2Fmeitner |url-status=dead }}</ref> On 6 November 2020, a satellite named after her ([[ÑuSat|ÑuSat 16]] or "Lise", COSPAR 2020-079H) was launched.<ref>{{cite web |title=Post Launch Report |publisher=Satellogic |url=https://mailchi.mp/ace3dfcbde8a/dedicated_launch |access-date=3 March 2023 |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706103955/https://mailchi.mp/ace3dfcbde8a/dedicated_launch |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] named its library<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 July 2016 |title=IAEA Lise Meitner Library |url=https://www.iaea.org/resources/library |access-date=7 January 2024 |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |language=en |archive-date=7 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107122315/https://www.iaea.org/resources/library |url-status=live }}</ref> in her honour and established a programme to "provide early- and mid‑career women professionals with opportunities to participate in a multi-week visiting professional programme and advance their technical and soft skills".<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 February 2023 |title=Lise Meitner Programme |url=https://www.iaea.org/services/key-programmes/lise-meitner-programme |access-date=7 January 2024 |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |language=en |archive-date=7 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107122316/https://www.iaea.org/services/key-programmes/lise-meitner-programme |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Footnotes==

Line 231 ⟶ 232:

* {{cite journal |title=The History of the Discovery of Nuclear Fission |first=Jack E. |last=Fergusson |journal=Foundations of Chemistry |issn=1386-4238 |volume=13 |issue=2 |date=July 2011 |pages=145–166 |doi=10.1007/s10698-011-9112-2 |s2cid=93361285 }}

* {{Cite journal |last1=Frisch |first1= Otto Robert |author-link=Otto Robert Frisch |title=Lise Meitner. 1878–1968 |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |issn=0080-4606 |volume=16 |pages=405–426 |year=1970 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1970.0016 |doi-access=free }}

* {{cite book |last=Frisch |first=Otto Robert |author-link=Otto Robert Frisch |title=What Little I Remember |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=1979 |isbn=0-521-40583-1 |oclc=861058137 }}

* {{cite journal |last1= Hahn |first1= Otto |title= The Discovery of Fission |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0258-76 |journal= Scientific American |volume= 198 |issue= 2 |pages=76–84 |year= 1958 |bibcode= 1958SciAm.198b..76H}}

* {{cite book |last=Hahn |first=Otto |translator-first=Willy |translator-last=Ley |translator-link=Willy Ley |title=Otto Hahn: A Scientific Autobiography |year=1966 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |oclc=646422716 }}

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* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=The Discovery of Protactinium |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |issn=0021-9584 |volume=63 |issue=8 |pages=653–657 |date=August 1986 |doi=10.1021/ed063p653 |bibcode=1986JChEd..63..653S }}

* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=Lise Meitner and the Discovery of Fission |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |issn=0021-9584 |volume=66 |issue=5 |date=May 1989 |pages=373–376 |doi=10.1021/ed066p373 |bibcode=1989JChEd..66..373S |doi-access=free }}

* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=Lise Meitner's ~~escape~~Escape from Germany |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252687986 |journal=American Journal of Physics |issn=0002-9505 |volume=58 |issue=3 |date=March 1990 |pages=262–267 |doi=10.1119/1.16196 |bibcode=1990AmJPh..58..262S |access-date=25 September 2020 |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208044156/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/252687986_Lise_Meitner%27s_escape_from_Germany |url-status=live }}

* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=Lise Meitner in Sweden 1938–1960: Exile from physics |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253501777 |journal=American Journal of Physics |issn=0002-9505 |volume=62 |issue=8 |date=August 1994 |pages=695–701 |doi=10.1119/1.17498 |bibcode=1994AmJPh..62..695S |access-date=25 September 2020 |archive-date=8 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220208044157/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/253501777_Lise_Meitner_in_Sweden_1938-1960_Exile_from_physics |url-status=live }}

* {{cite book |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |year=1996 |title=Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-08906-8 |oclc=32893857 |url=https://archive.org/details/lisemeitnerlifei00sime }}

* {{cite ~~web~~book |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry |series=History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute under National Socialism |id=No. 24 |url=http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/KWG/Ergebnisse/Ergebnisse24.pdf |publisher=Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus |date=2005 |access-date=26 November 2015 ~~|ref=none~~ |archive-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030042706/http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/KWG/Ergebnisse/Ergebnisse24.pdf |url-status=live }} ~~Sime's article is the 24th publication in the series ''History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute under National Socialism''.~~▼

* {{cite journal |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |journal=Physics in Perspective |issn=1422-6944 |date=15 June 2010 |title=An Inconvenient History: ~~the~~The Nuclear-Fission Display in the Deutsches Museum |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=190–218 |doi=10.1007/s00016-009-0013-x |bibcode=2010PhP....12..190S |s2cid=120584702 }}

* {{cite journal |last=Spence |first=Robert |year=1970 |title=Otto Hahn 1879–1968 |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |volume=16 |pages=279–313 |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1970.0010 |doi-access=free}}

* {{cite journal |last=Steinhauser |first=G. |title=Hahn and Strassmann's First Credible, Yet Erroneous Approximation to the Discovery of Nuclear Fission |journal=European Physical Journal H |issn=2102-6459 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pppages=265–266 |date=2016 |doi=10.1140/epjh/e2016-70043-y }}

* {{cite book |last=Stolz|first=Werner |title=Otto Hahn/Lise Meitner |chapter=Die Arbeitsgemeinschaft Hahn —– Meitner |trans-chapter=The Hahn-Meitner Work Group |date=1989 |doi=10.1007/978-3-322-82223-9_3 |series=Biographien ~~hervorragender~~Hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler, Techniker und Mediziner |pages=19–41 |language=de |publisher=Vieweg+Teubner Verlag |location=Leipzig |isbn=978-3-322-00685-1 |oclc=263971970 }}

* {{cite journal |last=Stuewer |first= Roger H. |author-link=Roger H. Stuewer |title=Bringing the News of Fission to America |journal=Physics Today |issn=0031-9228 |volume=38 |issue=10 |date=October 1985 |pages=48–56 |doi=10.1063/1.881016 |bibcode=1985PhT....38j..48S }}

* {{cite journal |last1=Van der Kloot |first1=W. |title=April 1915: Five Future Nobel ~~prize~~Prize-~~winners~~Winners ~~inaugurate~~Inaugurate ~~weapons~~Weapons of ~~mass~~Mass ~~destruction~~Destruction and the ~~academic~~Academic-~~industrial~~Industrial-~~military~~Military ~~complex~~Complex |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |date=2004 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=149–160 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.2004.0053|s2cid=145243958}}

* {{cite journal |last=Walker |first=Mark |title=Otto Hahn: Responsibility and Repression |date=May 2006 |journal=Physics in Perspective |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=116–163 |issn=1422-6944 |doi=10.1007/s00016-006-0277-3 |bibcode=2006PhP.....8..116W |s2cid=120992662 }}

* {{cite journal |last=Watkins |first=Sallie A. |title=Lise Meitner and the Beta-Ray Energy Controversy: An historical Perspective |journal=American Journal of Physics |issn=0002-9505 |volume=51 |issue=6 |date=June 1983 |pages=551–553 |doi=10.1119/1.13201 |bibcode=1983AmJPh..51..551W }}

* {{cite journal |last=Watkins |first=Sallie A. |date=January 1984 |title=The ~~making~~Making of a ~~physicist~~Physicist |journal=The Physics Teacher |issn=0031-921X |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=12–15 |doi=10.1119/1.2341442 |bibcode=1984PhTea..22...12W }}

* {{cite thesis |last=Yruma |first=Jeris Stueland |title=How Experiments Are Remembered: The Discovery of Nuclear Fission, 1938–1968 |publisher=Princeton University |degree=PhD |date=November 2008|oclc=297148928}}

Line 260 ⟶ 262:

==Further reading==

* {{Cite book |~~editor1~~editor-last=Frisch |editor-first=Otto Robert |~~editor1~~editor-~~last~~link=Otto Robert Frisch |year=1959|title=Trends in Atomic Physics: Essays Dedicated to Lise Meitner, Otto Hahn, Max von Laue on the Occasion of their 80th Birthday|publisher=Interscience|location=New York |oclc=1547540 |ref=none}}

* {{Cite journal |last=Goldberg |first=Stanley |title=With friends like these . ... ~~|last=Goldberg |first=Stanley~~ |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |date=July 1996 |pages=55–57 |doi=10.1080/00963402.1996.11456645 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hAsAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA55 |ref=none }} Contemporaneous review of [[Ruth Lewin Sime]]'s biography of Meitner.

* {{SKBL|author=Hedqvist, Hedvig~~, {{SKBL~~}}

*{{Cite journal |doi=10.1001/jama.245.20.2021 |last1=Kyle |first1=R. A. |last2=Shampo |first2=M. A. |title=Lise Meitner |journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=245 |issue=20 |pages=2021 |year=1981 |pmid=7014939|ref=none}}

* {{cite book |editor-last1=Lykknes |editor-first1=Annette |editor-last2=Van Tiggelen |editor-first2=Brigitte |title=Women In Their Element: Selected Women's Contributions To The Periodic System |location=New Jersey |publisher=World Scientific | year=2019| isbn=978-9-811206-28-3 |oclc=1104056222 |ref=none }}

* {{Cite book |first=Lise |last=Meitner |editor1-first=Dietrich |editor1-last=Hahn |year=2005 |title=Erinnerungen an Otto Hahn |language=de |trans-title=Recollections of Otto Hahn |publisher=S. Hirzel |location=Stuttgart |isbn=978-3-7776-1380-2 |oclc=180889711|ref=none}}

* {{Cite book |last=Rife |first=Patricia |year=1999 |title=Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age |isbn=~~9780817637323~~978-0-8176-3732-3 |oclc=38130718 |publisher=Birkhäuser |~~url-access=registration |url~~location=~~https://archive.org/details/lisemeitnerdawno0000rife~~Boston |ref=none }}

* {{cite book |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |year=2006 |chapter=Lise Meitner |chapter-url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521821971 |title=Out of the Shadows: Contributions of 20th-Century Women to Physics |editor1-first=Nina |editor1-last=Byers |editor1-link=Nina Byers |editor2-first=Gary |editor2-last=Williams |publisher=Cambridge University Press |ref=none |access-date=31 May 2008 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193339/http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521821971 |url-status=live }}

▲* {{cite web |last=Sime |first=Ruth Lewin |author-link=Ruth Lewin Sime |title=From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry |url=http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/KWG/Ergebnisse/Ergebnisse24.pdf |publisher=Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus |date=2005 |access-date=26 November 2015 |ref=none |archive-date=30 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030042706/http://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/KWG/Ergebnisse/Ergebnisse24.pdf |url-status=live }} Sime's article is the 24th publication in the series ''History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute under National Socialism''.

Line 301 ⟶ 300:

[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]

[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]

[[Category:Foreign ~~Members~~members of the Royal Society]]

[[Category:Enrico Fermi Award recipients]]

[[Category:Recipients of the Austrian Decoration for Science and Art]]