Marine geology: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

Article Images

Line 6:

== History ==

The study of marine geology dates back to the late 1800s during the 4-year HMS [[Challenger expedition|''Challenger'' expedition]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |~~last~~last1=Heckel |~~first~~first1=Jodi |last2=Bureau |first2=Illinois News |date=2023-02-10 |title=Exploring the deep with the HMS Challenger {{!}} College of Liberal Arts & Sciences at Illinois |url=https://las.illinois.edu/news/2023-02-10/exploring-deep-hms-challenger |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=las.illinois.edu |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Citation |last=Board |first=National Research Council (US) Ocean Studies |title=Achievements in Marine Geology and Geophysics |date=2000 |work=50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science Foundation 1950—2000 |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK208827/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |publisher=National Academies Press (US) |language=en}}</ref> The HMS ''Challenger'' hosted nearly 250 people, including sailors, engineers, carpenters, marines, officers and a 6-person team of scientists, led by [[Charles Wyville Thomson]].<ref name=":02" /><ref name=":22">{{Cite web |title=HMS Challenger Expedition {{!}} History of a Scientific Trailblazer |url=https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/hms-challenger-expedition-oceanography-trailblazer |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=www.rmg.co.uk |language=en}}</ref> The scientists' goal was to prove that there was life in the deepest parts of the ocean.<ref name=":22" /> Using a sounding rope, dropped over the edge of the ship, the team was able to capture ample amounts of data. Part of their discovery was that the deepest part of the ocean was not in the middle.<ref name=":12" /> These were some of the first records of the mid-ocean ridge system.

Preceding World War II, marine geology was becoming more prevalent to the science community. During the early 20th-century, organizations such as the [[Scripps Institution of Oceanography]] and the [[Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution]] (WHOI) were created to support efforts in the field.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=Who We Are - Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution |url=https://www.whoi.edu/who-we-are/ |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=https://www.whoi.edu/ |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":42">{{Cite web |title=About Scripps Oceanography |url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/about |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=scripps.ucsd.edu |language=en}}</ref> With Scripps being located on the west coast of North America and WHOI on the east coast, the study of marine geology became much more accessible.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":42" />

Line 20:

==== [[Side-scan sonar]] ====

A common method of collecting imagery of the sea floor is Side-scan sonar.<ref name=":72">{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Johnson |~~first~~first1=Paul |last2=Helferty |title=The geological interpretation of side-scan sonar |url=http://basin.earth.ncu.edu.tw/download/courses/seminar_MSc/2009/1008-2_The%20geological%20interpretation%20of%20side-scan%20sonar.pdf |journal=Reviews of Geophysics |date=1990 |volume=28. |issue=4 |pages=357–380|doi=10.1029/RG028i004p00357 |bibcode=1990RvGeo..28..357J }}</ref><ref name=":82">{{Cite web |title=Exploration Tools: Side-Scan Sonar: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/sonar/side-scan.html |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=oceanexplorer.noaa.gov |language=en-US}}</ref> Developed in the late 1960s, the purpose of the survey method is to use active sonar systems on the sea floor to detect and develop images of objects.<ref name=":72" /> The physical sensors of the sonar device are know as a transducer array and they are mounted onto the hull of a vessel which sends acoustic pulses that reflect off the seafloor and received by the sensors. The imaging can help determine the seafloors composition as harder objects generate a stronger reflectance and appear dark on the returned image. Softer materials such as sand and mud cannot reflect the arrays pulses as well so they appear lighter on the image. This information can be analyzed by specialist to determine [[outcrop]]s of rock beneath the surface of the water.<ref name=":82" />

This method is less expensive than releasing a vehicle to take photographs of the sea floor, and requires much less time.<ref name=":82" /> The side-scan sonar is useful for scientist as it is a quick and efficient way of collecting imagery of the sea floor, but it cannot measure other factors, such as depth.<ref name=":72" /><ref name=":82" /> Therefore, other depth measuring sonar devices are typically accompanied with the side-scan sonar to generate a more detailed survey.<ref name=":72" />

Line 40:

==== Marine Magnetometry ====

[[File:Magnetometer2004USNavy.jpg|thumb|A magnetometer used by the United States Navy in 2004.]]

Magnetometry is the process of measuring changes in the [[Earth's magnetic field]].<ref name=":13">{{Cite ~~journal~~book |~~last~~last1=Zhang |~~first~~first1=Wentao |last2=Huang |first2=Wenzhu |last3=Luo |first3=Yingbo |last4=Li |first4=Fang |~~date=May 2019 |title~~chapter=Simultaneous detection of deep-sea earthquake and magnetic field using three-axis fiber optic accelerometer-magnetometer |~~url~~date=~~http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/i2mtc.~~May 2019~~.8826972~~ |~~journal~~pages=1–5 |title=2019 IEEE International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference (I2MTC) |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/i2mtc.2019.8826972 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/i2mtc.2019.8826972|isbn=978-1-5386-3460-8 }}</ref> The outer layer of the Earth's core is liquid and mostly made up of magnetic [[iron]] and [[nickel]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Loper |first=David E. |date=January 2000 |title=A model of the dynamical structure of Earth's outer core |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0031-9201(99)00096-5 |journal=Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors |volume=117 |issue=~~1-4~~1–4 |pages=179–196 |doi=10.1016/s0031-9201(99)00096-5 |bibcode=2000PEPI..117..179L |issn=0031-9201}}</ref> When the Earth turns on its axis, the metals release electrical currents which generate magnetic fields.<ref>{{Citation |title=The ~~Earth’s~~Earth's Magnetic Field |work=The Earth’s Magnetism |date=2006 |pages=1–66 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-27980-8_1 |access-date=2024-04-11 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-27980-8_1 |isbn=978-3-540-27979-2}}</ref> These fields can then be measured to reveal geological subseafloor structures.<ref>{{Cite report |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4095/100974 |title=Geophysical reconnaissance of Hudson Bay Part I Sea-magnetometer Survey Part Ii Subbottom Depth Recorder Survey |last=Hood |first=P J |date=1966 |publisher=Natural Resources Canada/CMSS/Information Management|doi=10.4095/100974 }}</ref> This method is especially useful in marine exploration and [[geology]] as it can not only characterize geological features on the seafloor but can survey aircraft and ship wrecks deep under the sea.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Talwani |first=M. |date=October 1973 |title=Geomagnetism in marine geology |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0025-3227(73)90069-8 |journal=Marine Geology |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=212–213 |doi=10.1016/0025-3227(73)90069-8 |bibcode=1973MGeol..15..212T |issn=0025-3227}}</ref>

A [[magnetometer]] is the main piece of equipment deployed, which is typically towed behind a vessel or mounted to a [[Autonomous underwater vehicle|AUV]]. It is able to measure the changes in fields of [[magnetism]] and corresponding geolocation to create maps.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Kostenko |~~first~~first1=Vladimir V. |last2=Tolstonogov |first2=Anton Yu. |last3=Mokeeva |first3=Irina G. |date=April 2019 |title=The Combined AUV Motion Control with Towed Magnetometer |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/ut.2019.8734468 |journal=2019 IEEE Underwater Technology (UT) |pages=1–7 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/ut.2019.8734468|isbn=978-1-5386-4188-0 }}</ref> The [[magnetometer]] evaluates the magnetic presence generally every second, or one [[hertz]], but can be calibrated to measure at different speeds depending on the study. The readings will be consistent until the device detects [[ferrous]] material.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exploration Tools: Magnetometer: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/technology/magnetometer/magnetometer.html#:~:text=A%20magnetometer%20is%20a%20passive,geological%20features%20on%20the%20seafloor. |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=oceanexplorer.noaa.gov |language=en-US}}</ref> This could range from a [[Hull (watercraft)|ship's hull]] to ferrous [[basalt]] at the seafloor. The sudden change in magnetism can be analyzed on the magnetometer's display.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Robbes |first=D. |date=May 2006 |title=Highly sensitive magnetometers—a review |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sna.2005.11.023 |journal=Sensors and Actuators A: Physical |volume=129 |issue=~~1-2~~1–2 |pages=86–93 |doi=10.1016/j.sna.2005.11.023 |issn=0924-4247}}</ref>

The benefit to a magnetometer compared to sonar devices is its ability to detect artifacts and geological features on top and underneath the seafloor.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Deans |~~first~~first1=Cameron |last2=Marmugi |first2=Luca |last3=Renzoni |first3=Ferruccio |date=2018-03-22 |title=Active underwater detection with an array of atomic magnetometers |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/ao.57.002346 |journal=Applied Optics |volume=57 |issue=10 |pages=2346 |doi=10.1364/ao.57.002346 |pmid=29714214 |arxiv=1803.07846 |bibcode=2018ApOpt..57.2346D |issn=1559-128X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Clausen |~~first~~first1=Carl J. |last2=Arnold |first2=J. Barto |date=May 1976 |title=The magnetometer and underwater archaeology |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1976.tb00953.x |journal=International Journal of Nautical Archaeology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=159–169 |doi=10.1111/j.1095-9270.1976.tb00953.x |bibcode=1976IJNAr...5..159C |issn=1057-2414}}</ref> Because the magnetometer is a passive sensor, and does not emit waves, its exploration depth is unlimited.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Li |~~first~~first1=Xiaochen |last2=Luo |first2=Xianhu |last3=Deng |first3=Ming |last4=Qiu |first4=Ning |last5=Sun |first5=Zhen |last6=Chen |first6=Kai |date=March 2023 |title=Low-noise, low-power-consumption seafloor vector magnetometer |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00343-022-2105-2 |journal=Journal of Oceanology and Limnology |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=804–815 |doi=10.1007/s00343-022-2105-2 |bibcode=2023JOL....41..804L |issn=2096-5508}}</ref> Although, in most studies, the resolution and certainty of the data collected is dependent on the distance from the device. The closer the device is to a ferrous object, the better the data collected.

== Plate Tectonics ==

[[File:Tectonic_plates_(2022).svg|thumb|334x334px|Map of Earth's principal [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]].]]

[[Plate tectonics]] is a scientific theory developed in the 1960s that explains major landform events, such as [[Mountain formation|mountain building]], [[volcano]]es, [[earthquake]]s, and [[mid-ocean ridge]] systems.<ref name=":14">{{Citation |last=Condie |first=Kent C. |title=Plate tectonics |date=1997 |work=Plate Tectonics and Crustal Evolution |pages=1–35 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-075063386-4/50001-x |access-date=2024-04-11 |publisher=Elsevier|doi=10.1016/b978-075063386-4/50001-x |isbn=978-0-7506-3386-4 }}</ref> The idea is that Earth's most outer layer, known as the [[lithosphere]], that is made up of the [[Crust (geology)|crust]] and [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] is divided into extensive plates of rock.<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":14" /> These plates sit on top of partially molten layer of rock know as the asthenosphere and move relative to each other due to convection between the [[asthenosphere]] and lithosphere.<ref name=":14" /> The speed at which the plates move ranges between 2 to 15 centimeters per year. Why this theory is so significant is the interaction between the [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] explains many geological formations.<ref name=":11" /> In regards to marine geology, the movement of the plates explains [[seafloor spreading]] and [[mid-ocean ridge]] systems, [[Subduction|subduction zones]] and trenches, volcanism and [[hydrothermal vent]]s, and more.

There are three major types of tectonic plate boundaries; [[Divergent boundary|divergent]], [[Convergent boundary|convergent]], and [[Transform fault|transform boundaries]].<ref name=":15">{{Citation |~~last~~last1=Frisch |~~first~~first1=Wolfgang |title=Plate tectonics and mountain building |date=2010-11-02 |work=Plate Tectonics |pages=149–158 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-76504-2_11 |access-date=2024-04-11 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-540-76503-5 |last2=Meschede |first2=Martin |last3=Blakey |first3=Ronald|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-76504-2_11 }}</ref> Divergent plate boundaries are when two tectonic plates move away from each other, convergent plate boundaries are when two plates move towards each other, and transform plate boundaries are when two plates slide sideways past each other. Each boundary type is associated with different geological marine features. Divergent plates are the cause for [[mid-ocean ridge]] systems while convergent plates are responsible for subduction zones and the creation of deep ocean trenches. Transform boundaries cause [[earthquake]]s, displacement of rock, and crustal deformation.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":14" /><ref name=":11" /><ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Silver |~~first~~first1=Eli A. |last2=Cox |first2=Allan |last3=Hart |first3=Robert Brian |date=December 1986 |title=Plate Tectonics: How It Works |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3514713 |journal=PALAIOS |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=615 |doi=10.2307/3514713 |jstor=3514713 |bibcode=1986Palai...1..615S |issn=0883-1351}}</ref>

=== Mid Ocean Ridge System ===

Divergent plates are directly responsible for the largest mountain range on Earth, know as the [[mid-ocean ridge]] system.<ref name=":16">{{Citation |~~last~~last1=Searle |~~first~~first1=R. C. |title=The Rheology and Morphology of Oceanic Lithosphere and Mid-Ocean Ridges |date=2013-03-19 |work=Mid-Ocean Ridges |pages=63–93 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/148gm03 |access-date=2024-04-11 |place=Washington, D. C. |publisher=American Geophysical Union |last2=Escartín |first2=J.|series=Geophysical Monograph Series |doi=10.1029/148gm03 |isbn=978-1-118-66587-9 }}</ref> At nearly 60,000 km long, the mid-ocean ridge is an extensive chain of underwater volcanic mountains that spans the globe.<ref name=":17">{{Cite web |last=US Department of Commerce |first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |title=What is the mid-ocean ridge?: Ocean Exploration Facts: NOAA Ocean Exploration |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/mid-ocean-ridge.html |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=oceanexplorer.noaa.gov |language=EN-US}}</ref> Centralized in the oceans, this unique geological formation houses a collection of [[ridge]]s, rifts, [[Fault (geology)|fault zones]], and other geological features.<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":17" />

The [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge]] is a consequence of the diverging [[North American Plate|North American]] and [[Eurasian Plate|Eurasian]], and the [[African Plate|African]] and [[South American Plate]]s.<ref name=":18">{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Smith |~~first~~first1=Deborah K. |last2=Cann |first2=Johnson R. |date=October 1993 |title=Building the crust at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/365707a0 |journal=Nature |volume=365 |issue=6448 |pages=707–715 |doi=10.1038/365707a0 |bibcode=1993Natur.365..707S |issn=0028-0836}}</ref> It began forming over 200 million years ago when the American, African and European continents were still connected, forming the [[Pangaea|Pangea]].<ref name=":19">{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Fujiwara |~~first~~first1=Toshiya |last2=Lin |first2=Jian |last3=Matsumoto |first3=Takeshi |last4=Kelemen |first4=Peter B. |last5=Tucholke |first5=Brian E. |last6=Casey |first6=John F. |date=March 2003 |title=Crustal Evolution of the ~~Mid‐Atlantic~~Mid-Atlantic Ridge near the ~~Fifteen‐Twenty~~Fifteen-Twenty Fracture Zone in the last 5 Ma |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002gc000364 |journal=Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems |volume=4 |issue=3 |page=1024 |doi=10.1029/2002gc000364 |bibcode=2003GGG.....4.1024F |issn=1525-2027}}</ref> After [[continental drift]], the ridge system became more defined and in the last 75 years, it has been intensely studied . The [[Mid-Atlantic Ridge|Mid-Atlantic Ridg]]<nowiki/>e was also served as the birthplace for the discovery of [[seafloor spreading]].<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Bird |~~first~~first1=D.E. |last2=Hall |first2=S.A. |last3=Burke |first3=K. |last4=Casey |first4=J.F. |last5=Sawyer |first5=D.S. |date=2007 |title=Early Central Atlantic Ocean seafloor spreading history |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/ges00047.1 |journal=Geosphere |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=282 |doi=10.1130/ges00047.1 |bibcode=2007Geosp...3..282B |issn=1553-040X}}</ref> As volcanic activity produces new [[oceanic crust]] along the ridge, the two plates diverge from each other pulling up the new ocean floor from below the crust.<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> Along the [[Continent-ocean boundary|ocean-continent]] border of the tectonic plates, the oceanic plates subduct underneath the continental plates, creating some of the deepest marine trenches in the world

[[File:Subduction-en.svg|thumb|416x416px|Diagram of the [[Geology|geological]] process of [[subduction]].]]

=== Subduction Zones ===

[[Subduction|Subduction zones]] are caused when two [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] [[Convergent boundary|converge]] on each other and one plate is pushed beneath the other.<ref>{{Citation |title=Subduction zones |work=SpringerReference |url=http://dxwww.~~doi~~springerreference.~~org~~com/index/doi/10.1007/springerreference_4233 |access-date=2024-04-11 |place=Berlin/Heidelberg |publisher=Springer-Verlag|doi=10.1007/springerreference_4233 |doi-broken-date=2024-04-11 }}</ref> In a marine setting, this typically occurs when the [[oceanic crust]] subducts below the [[continental crust]], resulting in volcanic activity and the development of deep ocean trenches.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Grevemeyer |~~first~~first1=Ingo |last2=Ranero |first2=Cesar R. |last3=Ivandic |first3=Monika |date=2018-01-12 |title=Structure of oceanic crust and serpentinization at subduction trenches |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/ges01537.1 |journal=Geosphere |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=395–418 |doi=10.1130/ges01537.1 |bibcode=2018Geosp..14..395G |issn=1553-040X}}</ref> Marine geology focuses on mapping and understanding how these processes function. Renowned geological features created through subduction zones include The [[Mariana Trench]] and the [[Ring of Fire]].<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Zhang |~~first~~first1=Jiangyang |last2=Zhang |first2=Fan |last3=Lin |first3=Jian |last4=Yang |first4=Hongfeng |date=September 2021 |title=Yield failure of the subducting plate at the Mariana Trench |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2021.228944 |journal=Tectonophysics |volume=814 |pages=228944 |doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2021.228944 |bibcode=2021Tectp.81428944Z |issn=0040-1951}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Billen |first=Magali I. |title=Lithosphere–Mantle Interactions in Subduction Zones |date=2023 |work=Dynamics of Plate Tectonics and Mantle Convection |pages=385–405 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-323-85733-8.00014-7 |access-date=2024-04-11 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/b978-0-323-85733-8.00014-7 |isbn=978-0-323-85733-8}}</ref>

====== Mariana Trench ======

The [[Mariana Trench]] (or Marianas Trench) is the deepest known submarine trench, and the deepest location in the Earth's crust itself.<ref name=":21">{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Gardner |~~first~~first1=James V. |last2=Armstrong |first2=Andrew A. |last3=Calder |first3=Brian R. |last4=Beaudoin |first4=Jonathan |date=2014-01-02 |title=So, How Deep ''Is'' the Mariana Trench? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01490419.2013.837849 |journal=Marine Geodesy |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1080/01490419.2013.837849 |bibcode=2014MarGe..37....1G |issn=0149-0419}}</ref> It is a [[subduction zone]] where the [[Pacific Plate]] is being subducted under the [[Mariana Plate]].<ref name=":22" /> At the deepest point, the trench is nearly 11,000 m deep (almost 36,000 feet).<ref name=":21" /><ref name=":22" /> This is further below sea level than [[Mount Everest]] is above sea level, by over 2 kilometers.

[[File:Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg|thumb|Volcanic arcs and oceanic trenches partly encircling the Pacific Basin form the so-called Pacific Ring of fire, a zone of frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.]]

====== Ring of Fire ======

The [[Pacific Ring of Fire|Ring of Fire]] is situated around the [[Pacific Ocean]], created from several converging plate boundaries.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Embley |~~first~~first1=Robert |last2=Baker |first2=Edward |last3=Butterfield |first3=David |last4=Chadwick |first4=William |last5=Lupton |first5=John |last6=Resing |first6=Joseph |last7=de Ronde |first7=Cornel |last8=Nakamura |first8=Ko-ichi |last9=Tunnicliffe |first9=Verena |last10=Dower |first10=John |last11=Merle |first11=Susan |date=2007-12-01 |title=Exploring the Submarine Ring of Fire: Mariana Arc - Western Pacific |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2007.07 |journal=Oceanography |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=68–79 |doi=10.5670/oceanog.2007.07 |issn=1042-8275}}</ref> Its intense [[volcanism]] and [[seismic]] activity poses a major threat for disastrous [[earthquake]]s, [[tsunami]]s and volcanic eruptions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ring of Fire |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ring-fire |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org |language=en}}</ref> Any [[early warning system]]s and mitigation techniques for these disastrous events will require marine geology of coastal and [[island arc]] environments to predict events.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Tupper |~~first~~first1=Andrew |last2=Carn |first2=Simon |last3=Davey |first3=Jason |last4=Kamada |first4=Yasuhiro |last5=Potts |first5=Rodney |last6=Prata |first6=Fred |last7=Tokuno |first7=Masami |date=May 2004 |title=An evaluation of volcanic cloud detection techniques during recent significant eruptions in the western ~~‘Ring~~'Ring of ~~Fire’~~Fire' |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2004.02.004 |journal=Remote Sensing of Environment |volume=91 |issue=1 |pages=27–46 |doi=10.1016/j.rse.2004.02.004 |bibcode=2004RSEnv..91...27T |issn=0034-4257}}</ref>

== Economic Benefits ==

=== Resource Exploration ===

Marine geology has several methods of detecting geological features below the sea.<ref name=":92" /><ref name=":13" /><ref name=":102" /><ref name=":12" /> One of the economical benefits of geological surveying of the seafloor is determining valuable resources that can be extracted.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Petersen |~~first~~first1=Sven |last2=Hannington |first2=Mark |last3=Krätschell |first3=Anne |date=2017-01-03 |title=Technology developments in the exploration and evaluation of deep-sea mineral resources |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3917/re1.085.0014 |journal=Annales des Mines - Responsabilité et environnement |volume=N° 85 |issue=1 |pages=14–18 |doi=10.3917/re1.085.0014 |issn=1268-4783}}</ref> The two major resources [[Deep sea mining|mined]] at sea include [[oil]] and [[mineral]]s and over the last 30 years, has generated between $9 -$11 billion dollars [[United States dollar|USD]] in the [[United States|United States of America]].<ref>{{Cite web |title="Who stands to benefit?" To engage in deep-sea mining or not. Not, say international scientists {{!}} Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries |url=https://oceans.ubc.ca/2023/11/08/who-stands-to-benefit-to-engage-in-deep-sea-mining-or-not-not-say-international-scientists/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=oceans.ubc.ca}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sharma |first=Rahul |date=2011-09-01 |title=Deep-Sea Mining: Economic, Technical, Technological, and Environmental Considerations for Sustainable Development |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4031/mtsj.45.5.2 |journal=Marine Technology Society Journal |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=28–41 |doi=10.4031/mtsj.45.5.2 |issn=0025-3324}}</ref> Although this sector seems profitable, it is a high risk, high reward industry with many environmental impacts.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Peacock |~~first~~first1=Thomas |last2=Alford |first2=Matthew H. |date=2018-04-17 |title=Is Deep-Sea Mining Worth It? |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0518-72 |journal=Scientific American |volume=318 |issue=5 |pages=72–77 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0518-72 |pmid=29672491 |bibcode=2018SciAm.318e..72P |issn=0036-8733}}</ref>

Some of the major minerals extracted from the sea include [[nickel]], [[copper]], [[cobalt]], [[manganese]], [[zinc]], [[gold]], and other metals.<ref>{{Citation |last=Dick |first=Rolf |title=Deep-Sea Mining versus Land-Based Mining: A Cost Comparison |date=1985 |work=The Economics of Deep-Sea Mining |pages=2–60 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-70252-5_1 |access-date=2024-04-11 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-70252-5_1 |isbn=978-3-642-70254-9}}</ref> These [[mineral]]s are commonly formed around [[Volcanism|volcanic activity]], more specifically [[hydrothermal vent]]s and [[Manganese nodule|polymetallic nodules]].<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Van Dover |~~first~~first1=C.L. |last2=Arnaud-Haond |first2=S. |last3=Gianni |first3=M. |last4=Helmreich |first4=S. |last5=Huber |first5=J.A. |last6=Jaeckel |first6=A.L. |last7=Metaxas |first7=A. |last8=Pendleton |first8=L.H. |last9=Petersen |first9=S. |last10=Ramirez-Llodra |first10=E. |last11=Steinberg |first11=P.E. |last12=Tunnicliffe |first12=V. |last13=Yamamoto |first13=H. |date=April 2018 |title=Scientific rationale and international obligations for protection of active hydrothermal vent ecosystems from deep-sea mining |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2018.01.020 |journal=Marine Policy |volume=90 |pages=20–28 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2018.01.020 |issn=0308-597X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Kang |~~first~~first1=Yajuan |last2=Liu |first2=Shaojun |date=2021-10-14 |title=The Development History and Latest Progress of Deep-Sea Polymetallic Nodule Mining Technology ~~|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/min11101132~~ |journal=Minerals |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=1132 |doi=10.3390/min11101132 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021Mine...11.1132K |issn=2075-163X}}</ref> These vents emit large volumes of super-heated, metal infused fluids that rise and rapidly cool when mixed with the cold [[seawater]]. The [[chemical reaction]] causes [[sulfur]] and [[mineral]]s to [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitate]] and from chimneys, towers, and mineral-rich deposits on the sea floor.<ref>{{Citation |title=Hydrothermal Systems and the Origin of Life |date=2021-11-09 |work=The Ecology of Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vents |pages=397–412 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1zm2v35.17 |access-date=2024-04-11 |publisher=Princeton University Press|doi=10.2307/j.ctv1zm2v35.17 }}</ref> [[Manganese nodule|Polymetallic nodules]], also known as [[manganese nodule]]s, are rounded [[ore]]s formed over millions of years from precipitating metals from seawater and [[sediment]] pore water.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Hein |~~first~~first1=James R. |last2=Koschinsky |first2=Andrea |last3=Kuhn |first3=Thomas |date=2020-02-24 |title=Deep-ocean polymetallic nodules as a resource for critical materials |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43017-020-0027-0 |journal=Nature Reviews Earth &~~amp;~~ Environment |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=158–169 |doi=10.1038/s43017-020-0027-0 |bibcode=2020NRvEE...1..158H |issn=2662-138X}}</ref> They are typically found unattached, spread across the abyssal seafloor and contain metals crucial for building batteries and touch screens, including [[cobalt]], [[nickel]], [[copper]], and [[manganese]].<ref name=":23" />

[[File:2015-04-14_18-20-14_Sonne_SO239_157ROV11_Logo_original(1).jpg|thumb|Manganese nodules on the seafloor in the Clarion-Clipperton zone. The image was taken with ROV KIEL 6000 during expedition SO239 with FS SONNE in April 2015.]]

A popular area for [[Deep sea mining|deep-sea mining]], located in the [[Pacific Ocean]], in the [[Clarion-Clipperton Zone|Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ)]]. The [[Clarion-Clipperton Zone]], or Clarion-Clipperton Fracture Zone, is approximately 4,500,000 square kilometers constructed of various submarine [[fracture zone]]s.<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Parianos |~~first~~first1=John |last2=O’Sullivan |first2=Anthony |last3=Madureira |first3=Pedro |date=2022-03-02 |title=Geology of parts of the central and eastern Clarion Clipperton Zone |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2022.2035267 |journal=Journal of Maps |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=232–245 |doi=10.1080/17445647.2022.2035267 |bibcode=2022JMaps..18..232P |issn=1744-5647}}</ref> It has been divided into 16 mining claims and 9 sections dedicated to conservation.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Lodge |~~first~~first1=Michael |last2=Johnson |first2=David |last3=Le Gurun |first3=Gwenaëlle |last4=Wengler |first4=Markus |last5=Weaver |first5=Phil |last6=Gunn |first6=Vikki |date=November 2014 |title=Seabed mining: International Seabed Authority environmental management plan for the Clarion–Clipperton Zone. A partnership approach |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2014.04.006 |journal=Marine Policy |volume=49 |pages=66–72 |doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2014.04.006 |issn=0308-597X}}</ref> According to the [[International Seabed Authority|International Seabed Authority (ISA)]], there is an estimated 21 billion tons (Bt) of nodules; 5.95 Bt of [[manganese]], 0.27 Bt of [[nickel]], 0.23 Bt of [[copper]], and 0.05 Bt of [[cobalt]]. It is a highly sought-after area for mining because of the yield of minerals it posses.<ref name=":25">{{Cite web |last=US Department of Commerce |first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration |title=DeepCCZ: Deep-sea Mining Interests in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research |url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/explorations/18ccz/background/mining/mining.html |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=oceanexplorer.noaa.gov |language=EN-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-17 |title=Polymetallic Nodules - International Seabed Authority |url=https://www.isa.org.jm/exploration-contracts/polymetallic-nodules/ |access-date=2024-04-11 |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Offshore Energy Development ===

Marine geology also has many applications on the subject of offshore energy development.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=THE ROLE OF FEDERALISM IN INITIATING OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE UNITED STATES AND EUROPE |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.23860/thesis-starr-clayton-2022 |publisher=University of Rhode Island |first=Clayton |last=Starr|date=2022 |doi=10.23860/thesis-starr-clayton-2022 }}</ref> Offshore energy is the generation of [[electricity]] using ocean-based resources. This includes using [[Wind power|wind]], [[thermal]]{{clarify|date=April 2024|reason=not hot air, nor [[thermal power]]?}}, [[wave]], and [[Tidal power|tidal]] movement to convert to energy.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Shouwei |~~first~~first1=Zhou |last2=Qingping |first2=Li |last3=Haishan |first3=Zhu |last4=Houhe |first4=Zhang |last5=Qiang |first5=Fu |last6=Li |first6=Zhang |date=2016 |title=The Current State and Future of Offshore Energy Exploration and Development Technology |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.15302/j-sscae-2016.02.003 |journal=Chinese Journal of Engineering Science |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=19 |doi=10.15302/j-sscae-2016.02.003 |issn=1009-1742}}</ref> Understanding the seafloor and geological features can help develop the [[infrastructure]] to support these [[Renewable energy|renewable energy sources]].<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Guinan |~~first~~first1=J. |last2=McKeon |first2=C. |last3=O'Keeffe |first3=E. |last4=Monteys |first4=X. |last5=Sacchetti |first5=F. |last6=Coughlan |first6=M. |last7=Nic Aonghusa |first7=C. |date=2020-09-09 |title=INFOMAR data supports offshore energy development and marine spatial planning in the Irish offshore via the EMODnet Geology portal |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/qjegh2020-033 |journal=Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and Hydrogeology |volume=54 |issue=1 |doi=10.1144/qjegh2020-033 |issn=1470-9236}}</ref> Underwater geological features can dictate ocean properties, such as [[Current (fluid)|currents]] and [[temperature]]s, which are crucial for location placement of the necessary infrastructure to produce energy.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Yang |~~first~~first1=Xu |last2=Bai |first2=Ke |date=November 2010 |title=Development and prospects of offshore wind power |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/wnwec.2010.5673138 |journal=2010 World Non-Grid-Connected Wind Power and Energy Conference |pages=1–4 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/wnwec.2010.5673138|isbn=978-1-4244-8920-6 }}</ref>

The stability of the seafloor is important for the creation of offshore [[wind turbine]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Coughlan |~~first~~first1=Mark |last2=Long |first2=Mike |last3=Doherty |first3=Paul |date=2020-06-03 |title=Geological and geotechnical constraints in the Irish Sea for offshore renewable energy |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2020.1758811 |journal=Journal of Maps |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=420–431 |doi=10.1080/17445647.2020.1758811 |bibcode=2020JMaps..16..420C |issn=1744-5647}}</ref> Most turbines are secured to the seafloor using [[Deep foundation|monopiles]], if the water depth is greater than 15 meters.<ref name=":26">{{Cite ~~web~~journal |~~last~~last1=Alsharedah |~~first~~first1=Yazeed |last2=Naggar |first2=M.Hesham El |last3=Newson |first3=Timothy |date=2023 |title=A Compliance Model for Monopiles for Offshore Wind Turbines |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4445231 |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=dx.doi.org|doi=10.2139/ssrn.4445231 }}</ref> There must be inserted in areas that are not at risk to [[Deposition (geology)|sediment deposition]], [[erosion]], or [[Tectonics|tectonic]] activity. [[Surveying]] the geological area before development is needed to insure proper support of the [[Wind turbine|turbines]] and forces applied to them.<ref name=":26" /> Another example why marine geology is needed for future energy projects is to understand [[wave]] and [[Current (water)|current]] patterns.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Nobre |~~first~~first1=Ana |last2=Pacheco |first2=Miguel |last3=Jorge |first3=Raquel |last4=Lopes |first4=M.F.P. |last5=Gato |first5=L.M.C. |date=January 2009 |title=Geo-spatial multi-criteria analysis for wave energy conversion system deployment |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2008.03.002 |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=97–111 |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2008.03.002 |issn=0960-1481}}</ref> Analyzing the effects that the seafloor has on water movement can help support planning and location selection of generators offshore and optimize energy farming.<ref>{{Citation |title=Wave Energy Utilization in Europe: Current Status and Perspectives |date=2018-12-14 |work=Renewable Energy |pages=487–500 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781315793245-115 |access-date=2024-04-11 |publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315793245-115 |isbn=978-1-315-79324-5 }}</ref>

== Environmental Impacts and Mitigation ==

=== Habitat Mapping and Conservation ===

Marine Geology has a key role in [[habitat]] mapping and conservation. With global events causing potentially irreversible damage to the sea habitats, such as [[Deep sea mining|deep-sea mining]] and [[bottom trawling]], marine geology can help us study and mitigate the affects of these activity.<ref>{{Citation |last=Sharma |first=Rahul |title=Development of Environmental Management Plan for Deep-Sea Mining |date=2017 |work=Deep-Sea Mining |pages=483–506 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-52557-0_17 |access-date=2024-04-11 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-52557-0_17 |isbn=978-3-319-52556-3}}</ref>

The [[Clarion-Clipperton Zone|CCZ]] has been surveyed and mapped to designate specific areas for mining and for conservation. The [[International Seabed Authority]] has set aside approximately 160,000 square kilometers of seabed within the [[Clarion-Clipperton Zone|CCZ]] as the area is rich with [[biodiversity]] and [[habitat]]s.<ref name=":24" /> The zone houses over 5,000 species, including [[sea cucumber]]s, [[coral]]s, [[crab]]s, [[shrimp]]s, [[Hexactinellid|glass sponges]], and members of the [[Spider|spider family]] and, has been an area where new species of [[sea worm]]s have been discovered.<ref name=":25" /> Furthermore, 90% of the species have yet to be identified.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-11 |title=These deep-sea animals are new to science—and already at risk |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/deep-sea-animals-new-species-mining |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=Animals |language=en}}</ref> Proper marine survey techniques have protected thousands of habitats and species by dedicating it to conservation.

[[Bottom trawling]] also poses a detrimental effects to the sea and using marine geology techniques can be helpful at mitigating them.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Olsgard |~~first~~first1=Frode |last2=Schaanning |first2=Morten T. |last3=Widdicombe |first3=Stephen |last4=Kendall |first4=Mike A. |last5=Austen |first5=Melanie C. |date=November 2008 |title=Effects of bottom trawling on ecosystem functioning |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jembe.2008.07.036 |journal=Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology |volume=366 |issue=~~1-2~~1–2 |pages=123–133 |doi=10.1016/j.jembe.2008.07.036 |issn=0022-0981}}</ref> [[Bottom trawling]], generally a [[commercial fishing]] technique, involves dragging a large net that herds and captures a target species, such as [[fish]] or [[crab]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Althaus |~~first~~first1=F |last2=Williams |first2=A |last3=Schlacher |first3=TA |last4=Kloser |first4=RJ |last5=Green |first5=MA |last6=Barker |first6=BA |last7=Bax |first7=NJ |last8=Brodie |first8=P |last9=Hoenlinger-Schlacher |first9=MA |date=2009-12-17 |title=Impacts of bottom trawling on deep-coral ecosystems of seamounts are long-lasting |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps08248 |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |volume=397 |pages=279–294 |doi=10.3354/meps08248 |bibcode=2009MEPS..397..279A |issn=0171-8630}}</ref> During this process, the net damages the seafloor by scraping and removing animals and vegetation living on the seabed, including [[coral reef]]s, [[shark]]s, and [[sea turtle]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=de Groot |first=S.J. |date=September 1984 |title=The impact of bottom trawling on benthic fauna of the North Sea |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0302-184x(84)90002-7 |journal=Ocean Management |volume=9 |issue=~~3-4~~3–4 |pages=177–190 |doi=10.1016/0302-184x(84)90002-7 |bibcode=1984OcMan...9..177D |issn=0302-184X}}</ref> It can tear up [[root system]]s and animal [[burrow]]s, which can directly affect the sediment distribution.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Oberle |~~first~~first1=Ferdinand K.J. |last2=Storlazzi |first2=Curt D. |last3=Hanebuth |first3=Till J.J. |date=July 2016 |title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007 |journal=Journal of Marine Systems |volume=159 |pages=109–119 |doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007 |bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O |issn=0924-7963}}</ref> This can lead to the change in [[chemistry]] and [[Nutrition|nutriment]] levels in the sea water.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Oberle |~~first~~first1=Ferdinand K.J. |last2=Swarzenski |first2=Peter W. |last3=Reddy |first3=Christopher M. |last4=Nelson |first4=Robert K. |last5=Baasch |first5=Benjamin |last6=Hanebuth |first6=Till J.J. |date=July 2016 |title=Deciphering the lithological consequences of bottom trawling to sedimentary habitats on the shelf |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.008 |journal=Journal of Marine Systems |volume=159 |pages=120–131 |doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.008 |bibcode=2016JMS...159..120O |issn=0924-7963}}</ref> Marine geology can determine areas which have been damaged to employ habitat restoral techniques. It can also help determine areas that have not been affecting by [[bottom trawling]] and employ conservation protection.

=== Sediment Transportation and Coastal Erosion ===

[[Sediment transport]]ation and [[coastal erosion]] is a complex subject that is necessary to understand to protect infrastructure and the environment.<ref>{{Citation |~~last~~last1=Thomas Devlin |~~first~~first1=Adam |title=Tidal Evolution Related to Changing Sea Level; Worldwide and Regional Surveys, and the Impact to Estuaries and Other Coastal Zones |date=2020-03-25 |work=Estuaries and Coastal Zones - Dynamics and Response to Environmental Changes |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.91061 |access-date=2024-04-11 |publisher=IntechOpen |last2=Pan |first2=Jiayi|doi=10.5772/intechopen.91061 |isbn=978-1-78985-579-1 }}</ref> [[Coastal erosion]] is the process of [[sediment]] and materials breaking down and transported due to the effects of the [[sea]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Swift |first=Donald J. P. |date=July 1968 |title=Coastal Erosion and Transgressive Stratigraphy |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/627342 |journal=The Journal of Geology |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=444–456 |doi=10.1086/627342 |bibcode=1968JG.....76..444S |issn=0022-1376}}</ref> This can lead to destruction animal habitats, fishing industries, and infrastructure.<ref>{{Citation |~~last~~last1=Haj-Amor |~~first~~first1=Zied |title=Climate Change and Coastal Erosion |date=2020-01-22 |work=Climate Change Impacts on Coastal Soil and Water Management |pages=115–123 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780429356667-10 |access-date=2024-04-11 |place=First edition. {{!}} Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/ Taylor & Francis Group, 2020. |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-35666-7 |last2=Bouri |first2=Salem|doi=10.1201/9780429356667-10 }}</ref> In the [[United States|Unites States]], damages to properties and infrastructure has caused approximately $500 million per year, and an additional $150 million a year is dedicated to mitigation from the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coastal Erosion {{!}} U.S. Climate Resilience Toolkit |url=https://toolkit.climate.gov/topics/coastal-flood-risk/coastal-erosion |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=toolkit.climate.gov}}</ref> Marine geology supports the study of [[Sediment|sediment types]], [[Current (fluid)|current patterns]], and [[Seabed|ocean topography]] to predict erosional trends which can protect these environments.<ref>{{Cite ~~journal~~book |date=2018-02-06 |title=Handbook of Coastal Processes and Erosion |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9781351072908 |doi=10.1201/9781351072908|isbn=978-1-351-07290-8 }}</ref>

=== Natural Hazard Assessment ===

[[File:2004_Indonesia_Tsunami_Complete.gif|thumb|Model of the earthquake epicenter and tsunami extent of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake]]

[[Earthquake]]s are one of the most common [[natural disaster]]s.<ref name=":27">{{Cite journal |date=2013 |title=Large earthquakes may trigger more earthquakes |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/pt.5.026947 |journal=Physics Today |doi=10.1063/pt.5.026947 |issn=1945-0699}}</ref> Furthermore, they can cause other disasters to form as well, such as [[tsunami]]s and [[landslide]]s.<ref>{{Citation |title=Mechanics of earthquakes |date=2002-05-02 |work=The Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting |pages=179–243 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511818516.006 |access-date=2024-04-11 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/cbo9780511818516.006 |isbn=978-0-521-65223-0 }}</ref> Typically, [[earthquake]]s form from movement between two [[Plate tectonics|tectonic plates]] or between [[Fault (geology)|fault lines]].<ref name=":27" /> The ocean is home to several [[Plate tectonics|plate boundaries]] which causes frequent and major [[earthquake]]s, and potential [[tsunami]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Scholz |~~first~~first1=Christopher H. |last2=Tan |first2=Yen Joe |last3=Albino |first3=Fabien |date=2019-06-07 |title=The mechanism of tidal triggering of earthquakes at mid-ocean ridges |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-10605-2 |journal=Nature Communications |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=2526 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-10605-2 |pmid=31175308 |arxiv=1812.00639 |bibcode=2019NatCo..10.2526S |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> For example on December 2004, an [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|underwater earthquake in the Indian Ocean]] occurred at a [[Magnitude (earthquake)|magnitude]] of 9.1.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Rajendran |~~first~~first1=C. P. |last2=Rajendran |first2=K. |last3=Anu |first3=R. |last4=Earnest |first4=A. |last5=Machado |first5=T. |last6=Mohan |first6=P. M. |last7=Freymueller |first7=J. |date=2007-01-01 |title=Crustal Deformation and Seismic History Associated with the 2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake: A Perspective from the Andaman-Nicobar Islands |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1785/0120050630 |journal=Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America |volume=97 |issue=1A |pages=S174–S191 |doi=10.1785/0120050630 |bibcode=2007BuSSA..97S.174R |issn=0037-1106}}</ref> This event triggered a [[tsunami]] that caused waves to reach a height of 30 ft or more and killed approximately 230,000 people in 13 different countries.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reid |first=Kathryn |date=2023-09-25 |title=2004 Indian Ocean Earthquake and Tsunami: Facts and FAQs |url=https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/2004-indian-ocean-earthquake-tsunami-facts |access-date=2024-04-11 |website=World Vision |language=en-US}}</ref> These events are deadly and have significant impact on people, infrastructure and the environment alike. Marine geology and understanding plate boundaries supports the development of [[early warning system]]s and other mitigation techniques to protect the people and environments who may be susceptible to [[natural disaster]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Šepić |~~first~~first1=J. |last2=Vilibić |first2=I. |date=2011-01-05 |title=The development and implementation of a real-time meteotsunami warning network for the Adriatic Sea ~~|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/nhess-11-83-2011~~ |journal=Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=83–91 |doi=10.5194/nhess-11-83-2011 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011NHESS..11...83S |issn=1684-9981}}</ref> Many [[Earthquake warning system|Earthquake Early Warning]] (EEW) systems are in place and more are being developed.<ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Schlesinger |~~first~~first1=Angela |last2=Kukovica |first2=Jacob |last3=Rosenberger |first3=Andreas |last4=Heesemann |first4=Martin |last5=Pirenne |first5=Benoît |last6=Robinson |first6=Jessica |last7=Morley |first7=Michael |date=2021-08-04 |title=An Earthquake Early Warning System for Southwestern British Columbia ~~|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.684084~~ |journal=Frontiers in Earth Science |volume=9 |page=657 |doi=10.3389/feart.2021.684084 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021FrEaS...9..657S |issn=2296-6463}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |~~last~~last1=Cremen |~~first~~first1=Gemma |last2=Bozzoni |first2=Francesca |last3=Pistorio |first3=Silvia |last4=Galasso |first4=Carmine |date=February 2022 |title=Developing a risk-informed decision-support system for earthquake early warning at a critical seaport |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ress.2021.108035 |journal=Reliability Engineering &~~amp;~~ System Safety |volume=218 |pages=108035 |doi=10.1016/j.ress.2021.108035 |issn=0951-8320}}</ref>

== Future Scientific Research ==