Mediterranean Sea migrant smuggling: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{original research|date=May 2020}}

[[File:Inflatable boat carrying migrants approaching USS Carney (DDG-64) in the Mediterranean 160729-N-EU999-004.jpg|thumb|Migrants aboard an inflatable vessel in the Mediterranean in 2013]]

According to the [[United Nations]], [[human smuggling]] is defined as “the"the procurement, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit, of the illegal entry of a person into a State Party of which the person is not a national or a permanent resident.”"<ref name="ProtocolUN">“Protocol{{Cite web |date=2000 |title=Protocol Against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air, Supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime |url=https://www.”unodc.org/documents/middleeastandnorthafrica/smuggling-migrants/SoM_Protocol_English.pdf |website=[[United Nations, 2000.</ref>Office Civilon unrest in the Middle East in the 21st centuryDrugs and changing European immigration policies have been seen numbers ofCrime]] |publisher=[[refugeesUnited Nations]]}}</ref> fleeingWhile theirflows homeof countries.migration Migrantshave relycome onand humangone smugglersthroughout tohistory, assistcurrent themnumbers insurrounding illegalhuman bordermovement crossingsare to Europeunprecedented. <ref name="Cernov">CernovGeographic, Anaeconomic, and Oliverdemographic Hudson.factors "Smugglerscreate Willdistinct Alwaysmigration Outwit, Outpacepatterns and Outfoxroutes theover Governmentstime." SurIn International2020, Journalthere onwere Human281 Rights,million vol.international 13,migrants no.across 23,the 2016globe, pp.making 77-83.up ProQuest3.</ref>6% Withof the helpglobal ofpopulation. humanThough smugglers,this refugeesis usea differentsmall routespercentage toof the EUtotal duepopulation, tothe varyingnumber immigrationof policies.individuals Inresiding betweenin Januarystates andoutside Septemberof 2015,where thethey mostwere commonborn washas themore Easternthan Mediterraneantripled since 1970.<ref name="EMNInform">“EMN{{Cite Informreport on Migrants’ Movements Through the Mediterranean|url=https://publications.”iom.int/books/world-migration-report-2022 European|title=World Migration Network,Report 232022 Dec.|date=1 2015.</ref>December Additionally,2021 2015|access-date=28 sawApril a2024 major|website=[[International increaseOrganization infor theMigration]] number|publisher=United ofNations migrantsFund makingfor thePopulation EasternActivities Mediterranean|isbn=978-92-9268-078-7}}</ref> crossing;Looking “Thereat werethe nearlymost eightrecent timesmigration moreevents detections viain the [[EasternMediterranean region|Mediterranean]], route incrossing the firstsea ninehas monthsbeen ofa 2015primary (401,000)method thansmugglers duringuse theto wholeenter ofmigrants 2014into (51,000)Europe.” <refSince name="EMNInform"the /> The[[2015 European Migrationmigrant Networkcrisis|2015 reportsMigration thatCrisis]], the secondaryCentral movementsMediterranean ofregion refugeeshas uponbeen arrivaldeclared inthe Europedeadliest aremigration heavilyroute influencedin bythe human smugglersworld.<ref name="EMNInform"Nearly /> According to the UN28,000 humanirregular smugglingmigrants ishave aarrived criminalin offense.Europe <refin name="ProtocolUN" /> However2024, thewith numberover of11,000 humancrossing traffickersthe inMediterranean Turkey increased from 4,641Sea in 2017the to 6,278 in 2018process.<ref name="Koc">Koç,{{Cite Fırat,web et|title=EU al.Migration “Biyometrikand VerilerinAsylum ÜlkePolicy Giriş|url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/eu-migration-policy/#routes Çıkış Noktalarında Kullanılması Ile Suç|access-date=28 GeçişApril Bölgelerinin2024 Güvenliğinin|website=[[Council Sağlanması.”of Electronicthe Turkish Studies, vol. 15, no. 1, Jan. 2020, pp. 447–456. EBSCOhost.European Union]]}}</ref>

== SecrecyThe of2015 operationsMigration Crisis ==

{{Main|2015 European migrant crisis}}

Because the human smuggling of refugees is so illegal, yet lucrative, little is definitely known about the underground. Most of what is known is due to testimonials from refugees or smugglers given to journalists. [[International Organization for Migration]] General William Lacy Swing described human smuggling as “a crime. These unscrupulous smugglers are sending thousands of people to their deaths.”<ref name="IOM">“Mediterranean Migrants Died from Poisonous Fumes: IOM.” International Organization for Migration, 4 Sept. 2017, www.iom.int/news/mediterranean-migrants-died-poisonous-fumes-iom.</ref> Prices vary smuggler to smuggler, but a trip across the Mediterranean can cost between $1,000 and $1,500 per person <ref name="Yeginsu">Yeginsu, Ceylan, and Anemona Hartocollis. “Amid Perilous Mediterranean Crossings, Migrants Find a Relatively Easy Path to Greece.” The New York Times, The New York Times, 16 Aug. 2015, www.nytimes.com/2015/08/17/world/europe/turkey-greece-mediterranean-kos-bodrum-migrants-refugees.html.</ref> or even up to between $6,450 and $8,600. <ref name="Mullen">Mullen, Jethro, and Ashley Fantz. “Hundreds of Migrant Deaths: What Is Europe Going to Do?” CNN, Cable News Network, 21 Apr. 2015, www.cnn.com/2015/04/20/africa/italy-migrant-boat-capsizes/.</ref> That price usually covers one spot in an intentionally flimsy dinghy <ref name="Melchior">Melchior, Jillian Kay. “Who Benefits from Syria's Refugee Crisis: Human Smugglers.” National Review, National Review, 26 Oct. 2015, www.nationalreview.com/2015/10/human-smugglers-profit-syrian-refugee-crisis/. </ref> or old fishing boats,<ref name="Mullen" /> without a life jacket. <ref name="Yeginsu" /> Some smugglers even discourage the use of life jackets because they take up too much space. <ref name="Yeginsu" /> Numerous smugglers sell counterfeit life jackets that are actually not full of buoyant material. <ref name="Rubin">Rubin, Shira. “Daring Human Smugglers Use Social Media to Lure Migrants Fleeing Syria.” NewsBank, Yerepouni Daily News, 27 Jan. 2016. </ref> Many of the life preservers sold on the coast of Turkey have labels reading “this is not a lifesaving device”. <ref name="ThisFamily">“This Refugee Family Was Smuggled from Syria to Greece.” Films Media Group, 2015, fod.infobase.com/PortalPlaylists.aspx?wID=99355&xtid=114829. Accessed 4 Apr. 2020.</ref> After the refugees have paid for their trip, the smuggler gets them their boat and sends them across the Mediterranean, often headed on a dangerous journey to Greece. <ref name="Rubin" /> Between 2014 and October 2019, at least 14,000 refugees had died attempting to cross the Mediterranean. <ref name="AlJazeera">“More Than 1,000 People Dead in Mediterranean So Far This Year.” Al Jazeera, Al Jazeera, 1 Oct. 2019, www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/1000-people-dead-mediterranean-year-191001140843136.html. </ref>

[[File:Arrivals into the EU via the Mediterranean from 2008 onwards (UNHCR).svg|thumb|Arrivals into the EU via the Mediterranean from 2008 onwards]]

More than 1.3 million migrants reached European shores in 2015 alone, and more than 3,500 individuals died attempting the journey. The number of deaths is likely much higher, as there are presumably a large number of individuals whose bodies were never recovered from the sea. More than 75% of these migrants were fleeing conflict present in Syria, Afghanistan, and Iraq. The major contributing factors of this can be traced to 2011 with the beginning of the [[Arab Spring]] and large-scale wars in the Middle East.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Spindler |first=William |date=2015-12-08 |title=2015: The year of Europe's refugee crisis |url=https://www.unhcr.org/us/news/stories/2015-year-europes-refugee-crisis |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR US]] |language=en-us}}</ref> In 2016, more than 1.3 million individuals applied for [[Asylum seeker|asylum]] in the EU, Norway, and Switzerland, which more than doubled the previous record that was set in 1992.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2016/08/02/number-of-refugees-to-europe-surges-to-record-1-3-million-in-2015/ |title=Number of Refugees to Europe Surges to Record 1.3 Million in 2015 |date=August 2, 2016 |access-date=April 28, 2024 |website=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> 

== CommunicationMigration Routes ==

The majority of migrants use similar methods and routes to enter Europe. One of the most frequented routes involves a sea crossing from Libya to Italy, during which safety is not guaranteed. Since 1988, Over 20,000 individuals have died attempting to cross this portion of the Mediterranean.<ref name="iemed">{{Cite web |last=Achilli |first=Luigi |date=2016 |title=Irregular Migration to the EU and Human Smuggling in the Mediterranean. The Nexus between Organized Crime and Irregular Migration |url=https://www.iemed.org/publication/irregular-migration-to-the-eu-and-human-smuggling-in-the-mediterranean-the-nexus-between-organized-crime-and-irregular-migration/ |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=European Institute of Mediterranean |language=en-US}}</ref> To shed light on the issue, officials have tried to gain insight into the operations and routes of smuggling networks that profit from the desire to reach Europe. Mediterranean [[People smuggling|migrant smuggling]] is estimated to be a multi-billion dollar underground market, which 90% of irregular arrivals into Europe are estimated to utilize.<ref name="imf">{{Cite report |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Data/Statistics/informal-economy-data/Reports/Eurostat-Smuggling-of-Migrants |title=Eurostat: Smuggling of Migrants |language=en |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=[[International Monetary Fund]]}}</ref>

Modern technology has allowed for human smuggling rings in the Middle East to thrive. The “Smugglers Market” [[Facebook]] group had 640 members before it was removed by Facebook.<ref name="Rubin" /> It contained contact information for smugglers, price options for forged documents like marriage licenses, university degrees, and passports.<ref name="Rubin" /> Facebook has been removing content like this because it is against Facebook’s community standards.<ref name="Rubin" /> Additionally, smugglers use [[WhatsApp]] as a way to instant message the refugees that they are smuggling.<ref name="Yeginsu" /> With the help of technology, a huge market has emerged for human smugglers. <ref name="Cernov" />

There are several migration routes across the Mediterranean, and each presents its own challenges and dangers. The Western Mediterranean Route between Morocco and Spain has been a primary entry point for North African and Sub-Saharan migrants. However, there has been a decline in the use of this route due to the two countries implementing stricter enforcement measures. Migrants utilizing the Central Route depart from Libya and aim to reach the shores of Malta or southern Italy by boat. The Eastern Mediterranean Route has seen increased usage since 2015, particularly by individuals from war-torn countries like Syria and Afghanistan. Each method of arrival carries its own risks, but the Central Mediterranean Route stands out as the most deadly, claiming thousands of lives annually.<ref name="unodc">{{Cite report |url=https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/glosom/GLOSOM_2018_Europe_web_small.pdf |title=Global Study on Smuggling of Migrants |date=2018 |access-date=April 28, 2024 |website=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime}}</ref>

== Criticism and proposed solutions ==▼

Many world leaders have criticized Turkey for its lax policies against human smuggling. <ref name="Rubin" /> President of Greece [[Prokopis Pavlopoulos]] said “I have a strong fear that Turkish smugglers have the support of the authorities, in particular, border authorities who act like they have seen nothing.” <ref name="Rubin" /> Other critics of the human smuggling crisis in the Mediterannean claim the issue continues due to European countries’ nonuniform efforts to halt smugglers. <ref name="Melchior" /> Chairman of the [[Europa-Institut]] Christof Zellenberg stated “By inviting [people] in but closing all of the tracks, we are basically building a business model for traffickers.” <ref name="Melchior" /> [[François Crépeau]], United Nations Special Rapporteur, suggests “What is needed is for states to reclaim the mobility market from the hands of the smugglers through offering safe, legal, and cheap mobility solutions to the many, and to build an open but controlled mobility regime over a generation.” <ref name="Cernov" />▼

== Migrant Smuggling ==

Within migrant communities, smuggling is often seen as a necessary means to reach safety and opportunity in Europe. Smugglers are portrayed as service providers, facilitating journeys that would otherwise be impossible for many to achieve on their own. The magnitude of Mediterranean migration is large, with over 100,000 individuals specifically utilizing the Central Mediterranean route each year. The majority of arrivals are adult men, though there has been an increase in the number of migrants who are unaccompanied minors. These individuals are primarily teenage boys, but a small number of young girls are also smuggled across these routes each year.<ref name="unodc" />

The profile of smugglers is diverse, ranging from local operatives to larger transnational networks that use loose agreements to facilitate cooperation between them. While the business is male-dominated, women also play significant roles in recruitment and logistical work. Fees for smuggling services vary based on factors such as citizenship, gender, age, and perceived economic status. The price of the journey ranges from only a few hundred euros to thousands per person. Smuggling operations in Libya alone generate hundreds of millions of Euros annually, highlighting the scale of this underground economic market across the Mediterranean.<ref name="iemed" />

Smuggling networks demonstrate adaptability and resilience in the face of increased enforcement efforts, and their intricacies are not often understood. These networks are highly flexible and work efficiently within an ever-changing market of individuals wishing to flee their origin countries. They are often made up of independent and family-based organizations that partner for short periods to complete their task. While some migrants hire smugglers to assist them for only a particularly difficult leg of their journey, others are hired to help every step of the way. Both are paid services relating to transportation, documentation forgery, and accommodation.<ref name="iemed" /> The majority of migrants pay as they go, meaning that the final destination is not predetermined, and the direction and speed of their passage depend on how quickly they can pay for what smugglers require. Others finance in full within their origin country before the smuggler arranges the services needed to bring them to their desired destination. Those who survive the transport are often the ones who promote its continuation, as they will encourage friends and family to utilize similar methods to enter Europe.<ref name="iemed" />

A 2018 study highlights the decentralized nature of Mediterranean smuggling operations, particularly between Libya and the Italian island of [[Lampedusa immigrant reception center|Lampedusa]]. Wiretapped conversations unveiled a smuggling ring linking the [[Horn of Africa]] to Northern Europe, comprising 292 individuals. The majority of smugglers were male, with primary roles being “organizer” or “aide.” Payment systems lacked centralization, relying on informal money transfers. Migrant smuggling networks are also tied to many other [[organized crime]] rings, including [[human trafficking]] and [[money laundering]]. From the range of services offered, it is estimated that the annual turnover from smuggling reached EUR 3-6 billion in 2015 alone, but some believe the figure to be much higher.<ref name="imf" /> Decentralization of smuggling networks poses challenges for authorities, necessitating coordinated efforts, information sharing, land-based policies, and engagement with all countries along the route.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campana |first=Paolo |date=July 2018 |title=Out of Africa: The organization of migrant smuggling across the Mediterranean |journal=[[European Journal of Criminology]] |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=481–502 |doi=10.1177/1477370817749179 |issn=1477-3708}}</ref>

== Dangers ==

{{further|List of migrant vessel incidents on the Mediterranean Sea}}

These sea crossings are fraught with danger, as migrants often pay in advance and must wait several long periods of waiting for often undisclosed reasons. During this time, migrants remain in hidden connection houses where they may face exploitation and violence without resources to aid them. If caught, detention centers in Libya specifically contain horrific and life-threatening conditions. If migrants make it to departure from shore, the journey across the sea is perilous. Often given minimal information about the risks involved, migrants face extreme danger from overcrowded and unseaworthy vessels, lack of food and water, and the possibility of becoming lost at sea.<ref name="unodc" />

▲== Criticism and proposed solutions ==

▲Many world leaders have criticized Turkey for its lax policies against humanpeople smuggling. <ref name="Rubin">{{Cite web |last=Rubin |first=Shira |date=2016-01-26 |title=Daring human smugglers use social media to lure migrants fleeing Syria |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/01/26/migrants-smugglers-social-media-syria-turkey-greece-facebook/79347784/ |access-date=2024-09-05 |website=[[USA Today]] |language=en-US}}</ref> [[President of Greece]] [[Prokopis Pavlopoulos]] said “I"I have a strong fear that Turkish smugglers have the support of the authorities, in particular, border authorities who act like they have seen nothing.” "<ref name="Rubin" /> Other critics of the human people-smuggling crisis in the MediteranneanMediterranean claimsay the issue continues due to European countries’countries' nonuniform efforts to halt smugglers. <ref name="Melchior">{{Cite web |last=Melchio |first=Jillian Kay |date=2015-10-26 |title=Who Benefits from Syria's Refugee Crisis: Human Smugglers |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2015/10/human-smugglers-profit-syrian-refugee-crisis/ |access-date=2024-09-05 |website=[[National Review]] |language=en-US}}</ref> Chairman of the [[Europa-Institut]] Christof Zellenberg stated “By"By inviting [people] in but closing all of the tracks, we are basically building a business model for traffickers.” "<ref name="Melchior" /> [[François Crépeau]], United Nations Special Rapporteur, suggests “What"What is needed is for states to reclaim the mobility market from the hands of the smugglers through offering safe, legal, and cheap mobility solutions to the many, and to build an open but controlled mobility regime over a generation.” "<ref name="Cernov">{{Cite journal |last1=Cernov |first1=Ana |last2=Hudson |first2=Oliver |date=July 2016 |title=Smugglers Will Always Outwit, Outpace and Outfox the Governments |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1857447252 |journal=Sur International Journal on Human Rights |language=en |publication-place=São Paulo |volume=13 |issue=23 |pages=77–83|id={{ProQuest|1857447252}} }}</ref>

Waves of relocation will continue to appear in the future, so the need for policy reform surrounding Mediterranean Sea migrant smuggling remains a pressing matter. Events such as those in 2015 will only become more common as issues like climate change are increasing in urgency and propel individuals to search for better living conditions and economic prosperity.

== References ==

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[[Category:Human trafficking]]▼

[[Category:European migrant crisis]]

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[[Category:RefugeesHuman trafficking]]

[[Category:Mediterranean Sea]]

[[Category:Migrant boat disasters in the Mediterranean Sea]]

▲[[Category:HumanSyrian traffickingrefugees]]