Ottoman architecture: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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*{{Cite book |last=Gladiss |first=Almut von |title=Islam: Art and Architecture |publisher=h.f.ullmann |year=2011 |isbn=9783848003808 |editor-last=Hattstein |editor-first=Markus |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=The Ottoman Empire: Architecture |quote=Ottoman art has developed its own particular form of expression in architecture, ceramic tiles and vases, textiles, and last but not least, the art of the book. It set new standards of quality in many fields. The unrestrained enthusiasm of the ruler for ceremonial, the immense financial strength of the empire, an appreciation of planning and precision, as well as an inexhaustible source of ideas which flowed from the master builders, artists, and craftsmen from both Islamic and Christian backgrounds, all helped Ottoman art to flourish over a long period of time. |editor-last2=Delius |editor-first2=Peter}}

*{{Harvnb|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=134}}: "The longevity of the Ottomans led to a comparatively clear and consistent stylistic development."

</ref> undergoing some significant changes during its history.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kuban|2010|p=679}}: "The second important problem in any account of Ottoman architecture concerns the stages in the emergence of radical change. The Green Imaret, Süleymaniye, Nuruosmaniye and Ortaköy mosques are expressions of radically different cultural eras. In the history of Ottoman architecture, architectural design passed through several successive but very clearly distinct stages."</ref> It first emerged in northwestern [[Anatolia]] in the late 13th century<ref>{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=35}} "The earliest extant Ottoman buildings are in north-western Anatolia, where the Osmanlı Turks first appeared toward the end of the thirteenth century."</ref> and developed from earlier [[Anatolian Seljuk architecture|Seljuk Turkish architecture]], with influences from [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] and [[Iranian architecture|Iranian]] architecture along with other architectural traditions in the [[Middle East]].<ref>

*{{Cite book |title=Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1977 |editor-last=Harris |editor-first=Cyril M. |pages=485 |language=en |chapter=Seljuk architecture}}

*{{Cite journal |last=Ousterhout |first=Robert |date=1995 |title=Ethnic Identity and Cultural Appropriation in Early Ottoman Architecture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RtbeBrAHhxgC&q=Ottoman+Architecture&pg=PA60 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=12 |pages=60|isbn=9004103147 }}

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*{{Harvnb|Ostergren & Le Boss 2011|pp=215–216}}: "The grand tradition of Ottoman architecture, established in the 16th century, differed markedly from that of the earlier Moors. It was derived from both the Byzantine Christian tradition, outlined above, and native Middle Eastern forms used by the Islamic Seljuk Turks, who preceded the Ottomans. The Byzantine tradition, particularly as embodied in Hagia Sophia, was perhaps the major source of inspiration."

*{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=21}}: "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."

</ref> [[Early Ottoman architecture]] experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the [[Classical Ottoman architecture|classical Ottoman style]] of the 16th and 17th centuries. This style was a mixture of native Turkish tradition and influences from the [[Hagia Sophia]], resulting in monumental mosque buildings focused around a high central [[dome]] with a varying number of [[semi-dome]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=21}} "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Ostergren & Le Boss 2011|pp=215–216}}: "The grand tradition of Ottoman architecture, established in the 16th century, differed markedly from that of the earlier Moors. It was derived from both the Byzantine Christian tradition, outlined above, and native Middle Eastern forms used by the Islamic Seljuk Turks, who preceded the Ottomans. The Byzantine tradition, particularly as embodied in Hagia Sophia, was perhaps the major source of inspiration."</ref><ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman" /> The most important architect of the classical period is [[Mimar Sinan]], whose major works include the [[Şehzade Mosque]], [[Süleymaniye Mosque]], and [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]].<ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman">{{Cite book|title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|isbn=9780195309911|editor-last1=Bloom|editor-first1=Jonathan M.|chapter=Ottoman|editor-last2=Blair|editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref><ref name="AgostonMasters2010">{{cite book|author1=Gábor Ágoston|author2=Bruce Alan Masters|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC|date=21 May 2010|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7|page=50}}</ref> The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of certain [[Ottoman architectural decoration|decorative arts]], most notably in the use of [[Iznik pottery|Iznik tiles]].{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}}

Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was opened to external influences, particularly [[Baroque architecture]] in [[Western Europe]]. Changes appeared during the [[Tulip Period architecture|style of the Tulip Period]], followed by the emergence of the [[Ottoman Baroque style]] in the 1740s.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=505–509, 517–518}}{{Sfn|Ünver|2019|pp=18–22, 55 and after}} The [[Nuruosmaniye Mosque]] is one of the most important examples of this period.{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=355}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=526}} The [[Ottoman architecture in the 19th–20th centuries|architecture of the 19th century]] saw more influences imported from Western Europe, brought in by architects such as those from the [[Balyan family]].{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}} [[Empire style]] and [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] motifs were introduced and a trend towards [[Eclecticism in architecture|eclecticism]] was evident in many types of buildings, such as the [[Dolmabahçe Palace|Dolmabaçe Palace]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=605-606}} The last decades of the Ottoman Empire saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman revivalism, also known as the [[First national architectural movement|First National Architectural Movement]], by architects such as [[Mimar Kemaleddin]] and [[Vedat Tek]].<ref name="BloomBloom2009">{{cite book |author1=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA379 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |author2=Blair |author3=Sheila S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |pages=379 |chapter=Kemalettin}}</ref>{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}}

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Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of [[Bursa]], [[Edirne]], and [[Istanbul]] ([[Constantinople]]), as well as in several other important administrative centers such as [[Amasya]] and [[Manisa]]. It was in these centers that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=679}} Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as a ''[[külliye]]'', that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a [[mosque]], these could include a [[madrasa]], a [[hammam]], an [[imaret]], a [[Sebil (fountain)|sebil]], a market, a [[caravanserai]], a [[Kuttab|primary school]], or others.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the [[Balkans]] ([[Rumelia]]), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and [[North Africa]]n provinces older [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571-596}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=251}}

==Early Ottoman period (14th to 15th centuries)==

{{Main|Early Ottoman architecture}}

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[[File:Yeşil_Cami_alt_kat_planı.jpg|thumb|upright|Floor plan of the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] in [[Bursa]] (1412 –1424), which exemplifies the "T-plan" type, with three domed [[iwan]]s branching off a central domed space, with the larger iwan aligned with the ''[[qibla]]'' (top).]]

In 1334–1335, Orhan built a mosque in İznik that no longer stands but has been excavated by archeologists. It is significant as the earliest known example of a type of building called a ''zaviye'' (a cognate offrom Arabic ''[[Zawiya (institution)|zawiya]]''), "T-plan" mosque, or "Bursa-type" mosque.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=134-135}} This type of building is characterized by a central court, typically covered by a dome, with [[iwan]]s (domed or vaulted halls that are open to the courtyard) on three sides, one of which is oriented towards the ''[[qibla]]'' (direction of prayer) and contains the ''[[mihrab]]'' (wall niche symbolizing the ''qibla''). The front façade usually incorporated a portico along its entire width. The iwans on the side and the other various rooms attached to these buildings may have served to house [[Sufism|Sufi]] students and traveling [[dervish]]es, since the Sufi brotherhoods were one of the main supporters of the early Ottomans.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=135}} Variations of this floor plan were the most common type of major religious structure sponsored by the early Ottoman elites. The "Bursa-type" label comes from the fact that multiple examples of this kind were built in and around Bursa, including the [[Orhan Gazi Mosque]] (1339), the [[Hüdavendigar Mosque|Hüdavendigar (Murad I) Mosque]] (1366–1385), the [[Bayezid I Mosque|Yildirim Bayezid I Mosque]] (completed in 1395), and the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] built by [[Mehmed I]] (1412–1424).{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=142-144}} The Green Mosque is notable for its extensive [[tile]] decoration in the ''[[cuerda seca]]'' technique. It is the first instance of lavish tile decoration in Ottoman architecture.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=142-144}} These mosques were all part of larger religious complexes (''[[külliye]]''s) that included other structures offering services such as [[madrasa]]s (Islamic colleges), [[hammam]]s (public bathhouses), and [[imaret]]s (charitable kitchens).{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}}

[[File:ULU MOSQUE CAMİİ BURSA TURKEY - panoramio (14).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The multi-domed interior of the [[Grand Mosque of Bursa]] (1396–1400)|left]]

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==Classical period (16th to 17th centuries)==

{{Main|Classical Ottoman architecture}}

The start of the classical period is strongly associated with the works of the imperial architect [[Mimar Sinan]].<ref name=Goodwin>{{cite book |title=Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-86356-172-6 |last=Goodwin |first=Godfrey |publisher=Saqi Books |location=London}}</ref><ref name=Stratton>{{cite book |title=Sinan |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-684-12582-4 |last=Stratton |first=Arthur |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sinan00stra }}</ref> During this period the bureaucracy of the Ottoman state, whose foundations were laid in Istanbul by Mehmet II, became increasingly elaborate and the profession of the architect became further institutionalized.<ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman"/> The long reign of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] is also recognized as the apogee of Ottoman political and [[Culture of the Ottoman Empire|cultural]] development, with extensive patronage in art and architecture by the sultan, his family, and his high-ranking officials.<ref name="Grove encycl-Ottoman"/> In this period, Ottoman architecture, especially under the work and influence of Sinan, saw a new unification and harmonization of the various architectural elements and influences that Ottoman architectureit had previously absorbed but which had not yet been harmonizedfully synthesized into a collective whole.<ref name="Goodwin" /> Ottoman architecture used a limited set of general forms – such as domes, semi-domes, and arcaded porticos – which were repeated in every structure and could be combined in a limited number of ways.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=213}} The ingenuity of successful architects such as Sinan lay in the careful and calculated attempts to solve problems of space, proportion, and harmony.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=213}} This period is also notable for the development of [[Iznik pottery|Iznik tile]] decoration in Ottoman monuments, with the artistic peak of this medium beginning in the second half of the 16th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=110}}

=== The era of Sinan ===

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}}

After Sinan, the classical style became less creative and more repetitive by comparison with earlier periods.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=213}} [[Davud Agha]] succeeded Sinan as chief architect. Among his most notable works, all in Istanbul, are the Cerrahpaşa Mosque (1593), the Koca Sinan Pasha Complex on [[Mese (Constantinople)|Divanyolu]] (1593), the [[Gazanfer Ağa]] Medrese complex (1596), and the Tomb of Murad III (completed in 1599).{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010}}{{Sfn|Freely|2011}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=337-339}} Some scholars argue that the Nışançı Mehmed Pasha Mosque (1584–1589), whose architect is unknown, should be attributed to him.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=381-382}}{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=322}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=336}} Its design is considered highly accomplished and it may be one of the first Ottoman mosques to be fronted by a garden courtyard.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=336}}{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=322}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010}} Davud Agha was one of the few architects of this period to display great potential and to create designs that went beyond Sinan's designs, but unfortunately he died of the plague right before the end of the 16th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=381}}

[[File:Baghdad Kiosk at Topkapi Palace.jpg|thumb|Baghdad Kiosk in Topkapı Palace (1639)]]

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{{Main|Tulip Period architecture}}

[[File:4213_Istanbul_-_Topkapi_-_Harem_-_Camera_dei_frutti_(ca._1718-1730)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_27-5-2006.jpg|thumb|The Fruit Room in the Harem of Topkapı Palace (1705){{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=35}}]]

The historical period known as the [[Tulip Period]] or Tulip Era is considered to have begun in 1718, during [[Ahmed III]]'s reign ({{Reign|1703|1730}}), and lasted until the [[Patrona Halil]] revolts of 1730, when Ahmed III was overthrown. These years of peace inaugurated a new era of growing cross-cultural exchange between the Ottoman Empire and Western Europe.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=22-26}} From the 18th century onward, European influences were thus introduced into Ottoman architecture as the Ottoman Empire itself became more open to outside influences. The term "Baroque" is sometimes applied more widely to Ottoman art and architecture across the 18th century including the Tulip Period.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=21}}<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last1=Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan M.|chapter=Architecture; VII. c. 1500–c. 1900; A. Ottoman Empire |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}</ref> In more specific terms, however, the period after the 17th century is marked by several different styles.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=21-22}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} Ünver Rüstem states that constructions from the first years of Ahmed III's reign (after 1703) demonstrate that the new "Tulip Period" style was already in existence by then.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=36-37}} The period saw significant influence from the French [[Rococo]] style (part of the wider [[Baroque architecture|Baroque style]]) that emerged around this time under the reign of [[Louis XV]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=506}} In 1720,addition anto OttomanEuropean embassyinfluences, ledthe bydecoration [[Yirmisekizof Mehmedthe Çelebi|YirmisekizTulip ÇelebiPeriod Mehmedwas Efendi]]also wasinfluenced sent toby [[ParisSafavid art]] and when it returned in 1721 it brought back reports and illustrations of the [[French Baroque architecture|French Baroque style]] which made a strong impression into the sultan's courteast.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=373}}<ref name=":5" />{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|ppp=506, 509}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|ppp=2829-30}} InAlthough additionthe tonew Europeanarchitectural influencesstyle that emerged at this time is generally associated with the Tulip Period, constructions from the decorationfirst years of Ahmed III's reign, such as the Tulipso-called PeriodFruit wasRoom alsocreated influencedin by1705 [[Safavidwithin art]]Topkapı andPalace, architecturedemonstrate tothat the eastnew style was already in existence by then.{{Sfn|KubanRüstem|20102019|ppp=506, 509}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=29-3036–37}}

[[File:Women in gardens at Sadabad (from Zenanname) (cropped version).jpg|left|thumb|Illustration from the ''[[Zenanname]]'' showing the gardens and canal of [[Sa'dabad Pavilion|Sadâbâd]]]]

One of the most important creations of the Tulip Period was the [[Sa'dabad Pavilion|Sadâbâd Palace]], a new summer palace designed and built by Damat Ibrahim Pasha in 1722–1723 for Ahmed III.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=514-515}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=26}} It was located at [[Kâğıthane]], a rural area on the outskirts of the city with small rivers that flow into the [[Golden Horn]] inlet. The palace grounds included a long marble-lined canal, the ''Cedval-i Sim'', around which were gardens, pavilions, and palace apartments in a landscaped setting. This overall design probably emulated French pleasure palaces as a result reports about Paris and [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]] brought back by Ottoman ambassador [[Yirmisekiz Mehmed Çelebi|Yirmisekiz Çelebi Mehmed Efendi]].{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=373}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=515-516}} The regular inhabitants of Istanbul also used the surrounding area as a recreational ground for excursions and picnics.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=26}} This was a new practice in Ottoman culture that brought the public within close proximity of the ruler's abode for the first time.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=26}}

[[File:Enderuni1.jpg|thumb|Illustration from the ''[[Zenanname]]'' showing women in the gardens of [[Sa'dabad Pavilion|Sadâbâd]]. This new palace complex, partly accessible to the public, was a marked shift from earlier Ottoman imperial culture.|left]]

One of the most important creations of the Tulip Period was the [[Sa'dabad Pavilion|Sadâbâd Palace]], a new summer palace designed and built by Damat Ibrahim Pasha in 1722–1723 for Ahmed III.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=514-515}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=26}} It was located at [[Kâğıthane]], a rural area on the outskirts of the city with small rivers that flow into the [[Golden Horn]] inlet. The palace grounds included a long marble-lined canal, the ''Cedval-i Sim'', around which were gardens, pavilions, and palace apartments in a landscaped setting. This overall design probably emulated French pleasure palaces as a result of Yirmisekiz's reports about Paris and [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]].{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=373}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=515-516}} The regular inhabitants of Istanbul also used the surrounding area as a recreational ground for excursions and picnics.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=26}} This was a new practice in Ottoman culture that brought the public within close proximity of the ruler's abode for the first time.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=26}}

[[File:Brunnen Ahmet III 2013-03-18b.jpg|thumb|[[Fountain of Ahmed III|Ahmed III Fountain]] near Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (1728)]]

The culmination of the Tulip Period style is represented by a series of monumental stand-alone fountains that were mostly built between 1728 and 1732.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=374}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=509-510}} Water took on an enlarged role in architecture and the urban landscape of Istanbul during the Tulip Period. In the first half of the 18th century, Istanbul's water supply infrastructure, including the aqueducts in Belgrade Forest, werewas renovated and expanded. In 1732, an important water distribution structure, the ''taksim'', was first built on what is now [[Taksim Square]].{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=375}} The new fountains were unprecedented in Ottoman architecture. Previously, fountains and sebils only existed as minor elements of larger charitable complexes or as ''shadirvan''s inside mosque courtyards. The ''[[maidan]]'' fountain, or a stand-alone fountain at the center of a [[Town square|city square]], was introduced for the first time in this period.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=510}} The first and most remarkable of these is the [[Ahmed III Fountain]] built in 1728 next to the Hagia Sophia and in front of the outer gate of Topkapı Palace.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=374}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=510-511}}

[[File:Ahmed III Library DSCF2700.jpg|left|thumb|Ahmed III Library in Topkapı Palace, Istanbul (1719){{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=371-373}}]]

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[[File:Hekimoglu Ali Pasha Mosque 1340.jpg|thumb|Interior of the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque]] in Istanbul (1734–1735)]]

TheOne of the few major religious complexes built in this period and one of the last major monumentmonuments of the Tulip Period stage in Ottoman architecture is the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque]] complex, completed in 1734–1735 and sponsored by the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha|grand vizier of the same name]].{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=376-377}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=524}}{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=104}} This mosque still reflects an overall classical form but the flexible placement of the various components of the complex around a garden enclosure is more reflective of the new changes in tastes. For example, the main gate of the complex is topped by a library, a feature which would have been unusual in earlier periods. It also has a very ornate sebil positioned at the street corner, next to the founder's tomb. The interior of the mosque is light and decorated with tiles from the [[Palace of the Porphyrogenitus|Tekfursaray]] kilns, which were of lesser quality than those of the earlier Iznik period. One group of tiles is painted with an illustration of the [[Masjid al-Haram|Great Mosque of Mecca]], a decorative featuredetail offound whichin there were multipleother examples infrom this periodera.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=376-377}}

== Baroque period (18th century to early 19th century) ==

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[[File:Dolmabahçe Palace on January 30th, 2015.jpg|thumb|The [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] (1843–1856), on the shore of the Bosphorus, was built to serve as the new imperial palace of the Ottoman dynasty]]

Many palaces, residences, and leisure pavilions were built in the 19th century, most of them in the Bosphorus suburbs of Istanbul. The most significant is the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]], constructed for Sultan Abdülmecit between 1843 and 1856.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Dolmabahçe Palace|publisher=TBMM National Palaces|year=2013|isbn=9786054700387|location=Istanbul}}</ref> It replaced the Topkapı Palace as the official imperial residence of the sultan.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=619}} The palace consists mainly of a single building with monumental proportions, which represented a radical rejection of traditional Ottoman palace design.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} The style of the palace is fundamentally Neoclassical but is characterized by a highly eclectic decoration that mixes Baroque motifs with other styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=619-623}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=422}}

Various new types of monuments were also introduced to Ottoman architecture during this era. For example, [[Clock towers in Turkey|clock towers]] rose to prominence over the 19th century.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|last=Ekinci|first=Ekrem Buğra|date=2017-01-06|title=Ottoman-era clock towers telling time from Balkans to Middle East|url=https://www.dailysabah.com/feature/2017/01/06/ottoman-era-clock-towers-telling-time-from-balkans-to-middle-east|access-date=2021-09-08|website=Daily Sabah}}</ref>{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=664}} The construction of railway stations was a feature of Ottoman modernisation reflecting the new infrastructure changes within the empire. The most famous example is the [[Sirkeci railway station|Sirkeci Railway Station]], built in 1888–1890 as the terminus of the [[Orient Express]]. It was designed in an Orientalist style by [[Germany|German]] architect August Jasmund (also spelled "Jachmund").{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=666-667}} In the Beyoğlu district of Istanbul, Parisian-style [[Shopping mall|shopping arcades]] appeared in the 19th century. Some consisted of a small courtyard filled with shops and surrounded by buildings, while others were simply a passage or alley (''pasaj'' in Turkish) lined with shops, sometimes covered by a glass roof.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=672}} Other commercial building types that appeared in the late 19th century included hotels and banks.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=670-671}}

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A local interpretation of [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] fashion steadily arose in the late 19th century, initially used by European architects such as Vallaury. This trend combined "neo-Ottoman" motifs with other motifs from wider Islamic architecture.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=606-607 and after}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=425}} The eclecticism and European imports of the 19th century eventually led to the introduction of Art Nouveau, especially after the arrival of Raimondo D'Aronco in the late 19th century. D'Aronco came at the invitation of Sultan Abdülhamid II and served as chief court architect between 1896 and 1909.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=606}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=427}} Istanbul became a new center of Art Nouveau and a local flavour of the style developed.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=606, 673}} The new style was most prevalent in the new apartment buildings being built in Istanbul at the time.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=617-618}}

[[File:Istanbul Grand Post Office.jpg|thumb|The [[Grand Post Office]] in Sirkeci, IstanbuIstanbul, is one of the earliest Ottoman Revival buildings that marked the [[First national architectural movement]] (1909)]]

The final period of architecture in the Ottoman Empire, developed after 1900 and in particular put into effect after the [[Young Turks]] took power in 1908–1909, is what was then called the "National Architectural Renaissance" and which gave rise to the style since referred to as the [[First national architectural movement]] of Turkish architecture.<ref name=Bozdogan>{{cite book |title=Modernism and Nation Building: Turkish Architectural Culture in the Early Republic |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-295-98152-9 |last=Bozdogan |first=Sibel |publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle and London}}</ref> The approach in this period was an Ottoman Revival style, a reaction to influences in the previous 200 years that had come to be considered "foreign", such as Baroque and Neoclassical architecture, and was intended to promote Ottoman patriotism and self-identity.<ref name="Bozdogan"/> This was an entirely new style of architecture, related to earlier Ottoman architecture in rather the same manner was other roughly contemporaneous [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalist architectures]] related to their stylistic inspirations.<ref name="Bozdogan"/> New government-run institutions that trained architects and engineers, established in the late 19th century and further centralized under the [[Young Turks]], became instrumental in disseminating this "national style".<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Ersoy |first=Ahmet |title=Architecture and the late Ottoman historical imaginary: reconfiguring the architectural past in a modernizing empire |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=9780367432836 |pages=241–242 |language=en}}</ref>

== Tile decorationDecoration ==

=== Early {{Main|Ottoman tileworkarchitectural ===decoration}}

[[File:Yeşil Cami - Faience.jpg|thumb|Tile decoration in the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] in Bursa (1424)|left]]

[[File:Cem_Sultan_tomb_7954.jpg|thumb|Interior of the Tomb of [[Cem Sultan|Cem]] in Bursa (late 15th century): the lower walls are covered with hexagonal tiles that likely date from 1429.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=63}}]]Some of the earliest known tile decoration in Ottoman architecture is found in the [[Green Mosque, İznik|Green Mosque]] in Iznik, whose minaret incorporates glazed tiles forming patterns in the brickwork (although the current tiles are modern restorations). This technique was inherited from the earlier Seljuk period.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=129, 441}} Glazed tile decoration in the ''[[cuerda seca]]'' technique was used in other early Ottoman monuments, particularly in the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] and the associated [[Green Tomb]] in Bursa.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=14}} The tiles of the Green Mosque complex generally have a deep green ground mixed with combinations of blue, white, and yellow forming [[arabesque]] motifs. A large portion of the tiles are cut into hexagonal and triangular shapes that were then fitted together to form murals.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=60-61}} Some of the tiles are further enhanced with arabesque motifs applied in gilt gold glazing over these colours.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} Inscriptions in the mosque record that the decoration was completed in 1424 by Nakkaş Ali, a craftsman native to Bursa who had been transported to [[Samarkand]] by [[Timur]] after the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Ankara in 1402. In Samarkand, he was exposed to [[Timurid architecture]] and decoration and brought this artistic experience back with him later.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=15-16}}<ref name=":06">{{Cite journal|last=Necipoğlu|first=Gülru|date=1990|title=From International Timurid to Ottoman: A Change of Taste in Sixteenth-Century Ceramic Tiles|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523126|journal=Muqarnas|volume=7|pages=136–170|doi=10.2307/1523126|jstor=1523126|via=JSTOR}}</ref> Other inscriptions record the tilemakers as being "Masters of Tabriz", suggesting that craftsmen of Iranian origin were involved. [[Tabriz]] was historically a major center of ceramic art in the Islamic world, and its artists appear to have emigrated and worked in many regions from Central Asia to Egypt.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=16}} The artistic style of these tiles – and of other Ottoman art – was influenced by an "International Timurid" taste that emerged from the intense [[Timurid art|artistic patronage of the Timurids]], who controlled a [[Timurid Empire|large empire]] across the region.<ref name=":06" />{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=142-144, 232, 234}} Doğan Kuban argues that the decoration of the Green Mosque complex was more generally a product of collaboration between craftsmen of different regions, as this was the practice in Anatolian Islamic art and architecture during the preceding centuries.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=98-107}}

[[File:Muradiye mosque in Edirne 123.jpg|thumb|Blue and white tilework with Chinese influences at the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne (circa 1435)]]The same kind of tilework is found in the mihrab of the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne, completed in 1435. However, this mosque also contains the first examples of a new technique and style of tiles with [[underglaze]] blue on a white background, with touches of turquoise. This technique is found on the tiles that cover the muqarnas hood of the mihrab and in the mural of hexagonal tiles along the lower walls of the prayer hall. The motifs on these tiles include [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotuses]] and [[camellia]]-like flowers on spiral stems.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=20-21}} These [[chinoiserie]]-like motifs, along with the focus on blue and white colours, most likely reflect an influence from contemporary [[Chinese ceramics|Chinese porcelain]] – although the evidence for Chinese porcelain reaching Edirne at this time is unclear.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=20-21}} Tilework panels with similar techniques and motifs are found in the courtyard of the Üç Şerefeli Mosque, another building commissioned by Murad II in Edirne, completed in 1437.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=24-25}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=97-98}}

=== Tile decoration ===

The evidence from this tilework in Bursa and Edirne indicates the existence of a group or a school of craftsmen, the "Masters of Tabriz", who worked for imperial workshops in the first half of the 15th century and were familiar with both ''cuerda seca'' and underglaze techniques.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=25-27}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=62-63, 98}} As the Ottoman imperial court moved from Bursa to Edirne, they too moved with it. However, their work does not clearly appear anywhere after this period.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=25-27}} Later on, the Tiled Kiosk in Istanbul, completed in 1472 for Mehmed II's New Palace ([[Topkapı Palace]]), is notably decorated with Iranian-inspired ''[[banna'i]]'' tilework. The builders were likely of Iranian origin, as historical documents indicate the presence of tilecutters from [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]], but not much is known about them.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=214-215}} Another unique example of tile decoration in Istanbul around the same period is found on the Tomb of Mahmud Pasha, built in 1473 as part of the [[Mahmut Pasha Mosque, Eminönü|Mahmud Pasha Mosque]] complex. Its exterior is covered in a mosaic of turquoise and indigo tiles inset into the sandstone walls to form [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric star patterns]]. The work still reflects a traditional style of Anatolian or Persian tile decoration similar to older Timurid examples.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=190-191}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=110}}

{{See also|Iznik pottery}}[[File:Yeşil Cami - Faience.jpg|thumb|Tile decoration in the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] in Bursa (1424)|left]]Glazed tile decoration in the ''[[cuerda seca]]'' technique was used in early Ottoman monuments. The most extensive example is the [[Green Mosque, Bursa|Green Mosque]] and the associated [[Green Tomb]] in Bursa (early 15th century).{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=14}} The tiles of the Green Mosque complex generally have a deep green ground mixed with combinations of blue, white, and yellow forming [[arabesque]] motifs. A large portion of the tiles are cut into hexagonal and triangular shapes that were then fitted together to form murals.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=60-61}} Some of the tiles are further enhanced with arabesque motifs applied in gilt gold glazing over these colours.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} The artistic style of these tiles – and of other Ottoman art – was influenced by an "International Timurid" taste that emerged from the intense [[Timurid art|artistic patronage of the Timurids]], who controlled a [[Timurid Empire|large empire]] across the region.<ref name=":06">{{Cite journal |last=Necipoğlu |first=Gülru |date=1990 |title=From International Timurid to Ottoman: A Change of Taste in Sixteenth-Century Ceramic Tiles |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523126 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=7 |pages=136–170 |doi=10.2307/1523126 |jstor=1523126 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=142-144, 232, 234}}

[[File:Sehzade mosque tomb of Sehzade Mehmed DSCF6382.jpg|thumb|Cuerda seca tilework in the [[Şehzade Mosque|tomb of Şehzade Mehmed]] (1548) |left]]

[[File:Muradiye mosque in Edirne 123.jpg|thumb|Blue and white tilework with Chinese influences at the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne (circa 1435)]]The same kind of tilework is found in the mihrab of the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne, completed in 1435. However, this mosque also contains the first examples of a new technique and style of tiles with [[underglaze]] blue on a white background, with touches of turquoise. The motifs on these tiles include [[Nelumbo nucifera|lotuses]] and [[camellia]]-like flowers on spiral stems.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=20-21}} These [[chinoiserie]]-like motifs, along with the focus on blue and white colours, most likely reflect an influence from contemporary [[Chinese ceramics|Chinese porcelain]] – although the evidence for Chinese porcelain reaching Edirne at this time is unclear.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=20-21}} The evidence from this tilework in Bursa and Edirne indicates the existence of a group or a school of craftsmen, the "Masters of Tabriz", who worked for imperial workshops in the first half of the 15th century and were familiar with both ''cuerda seca'' and underglaze techniques.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=25-27}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=62-63, 98}}[[File:Sehzade mosque tomb of Sehzade Mehmed DSCF6382.jpg|thumb|Cuerda seca tilework in the [[Şehzade Mosque|tomb of Şehzade Mehmed]] (1548) |left]]

Another stage in Ottoman tiles is evident in the surviving tiles of the [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]] (1463–70) and in the [[Yavuz Selim Mosque|Selim I Mosque]] (1520–22). In these mosques the windows are topped by [[lunette]]s filled with ''cuerda seca'' tiles with motifs in green, turquoise, [[cobalt blue]], and yellow.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|pp=235, 262}} Chinese motifs such as dragons and clouds also appear for the first time on similar tiles in Selim I's tomb, built behind his mosque in 1523.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}} A more extravagant example of this type of tilework can be found inside the tomb of [[Şehzade Mehmed]] in the cemetery of the [[Şehzade Mosque]] (1548).{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|pp=186-187}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=73}} Further examples can be found in a few religious structures designed by Sinan in this period, such as the [[Haseki Sultan Complex|Haseki Hürrem Complex]] (1539).{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=73}} The latest example of it is in the [[Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque|Kara Ahmet Pasha Mosque]] (1555), once again in the lunettes above the windows of the courtyard.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|pp=186-187}} Many scholars traditionally attribute these Ottoman tiles to craftsmen that Selim I brought back from Tabriz after his victory at the [[Battle of Chaldiran]].<ref name=":06" />{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|pp=186-187}} Doğan Kuban argues that this assumption is unnecessary if one considers the artistic continuity between these tiles and earlier Ottoman tiles as well as the fact that the Ottoman state had always employed craftsmen from different parts of the Islamic world.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}} John Carswell, a professor of Islamic art, states that the tiles are the work of an independent imperial workshop based in Istanbul that worked from Iranian traditions.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=73}} Godfrey Goodwin suggests that the style of tiles does not correspond to either the old "Masters of Tabriz" school or to an Iranian workshop, and therefore may represent an early phase of tilework from Iznik; an "early Iznik" style.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=130, 211}}

Another stage in Ottoman tiles is evident in the surviving tiles of the [[Fatih Mosque, Istanbul|Fatih Mosque]] (1463–70) and in the [[Yavuz Selim Mosque|Selim I Mosque]] (1520–22). In these mosques the windows are topped by [[lunette]]s filled with ''cuerda seca'' tiles with motifs in green, turquoise, [[cobalt blue]], and yellow.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|pp=235, 262}} Chinese motifs such as dragons and clouds also appear for the first time on similar tiles in Selim I's tomb, built behind his mosque in 1523.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=441}} A more extravagant example of this type of tilework can be found inside the tomb of [[Şehzade Mehmed]] in the cemetery of the [[Şehzade Mosque]] (1548).{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|pp=186-187}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=73}}

[[File:Dome of the Rock, Facade (2008) 01.jpg|thumb|Tile decoration on the [[Dome of the Rock]], added during [[Suleiman the Magnificent|Suleiman]]'s reign]]

[[File:Topkapi circumcision room tiles DSCF2278.jpg|thumb|Details of blue-and-white tiles (early 16th century) on the exterior of the Circumcision Room in [[Topkapı Palace]]]]

An important case of Ottoman tile decoration outside the imperial capitals around this time was the refurbishment of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]] ordered by Sultan Suleiman. During the refurbishment, the exterior of the building was covered in tilework which replaced the older [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] mosaic decoration.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=220}} Inscriptions in the tiles give the date 1545–46, but work probably continued until the end of Suleiman's reign (1566).{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=220}} The name of one of the craftsmen is recorded as Abdallah of Tabriz. The tilework includes many different styles and techniques, including ''cuerda seca'' tiles, colourful underglaze tiles, and mosaic blue-and-white tilework. The tiles seem to have been fabricated locally rather than at centers like Iznik, despite the absence of a sophisticated ceramic production center in the region.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=220}} This project is also notable as one of the few cases of extensive tile decoration applied to the exterior of a building in Ottoman architecture. This major restoration work in Jerusalem may have also played a role in Ottoman patrons developing a taste for tiles, such as those made in Iznik (which was closer to the capital).{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=220}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=73}}

In the late 15th century, in the 1470s or 1480s, the ceramic industry in the city of [[İznik]] was growing and began producing a new "blue-and-white" [[fritware]] which adapted and incorporated Chinese motifs in its decoration.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=28-34}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=234}} The most extraordinary tile panels from this stage of Ottoman ceramic art are a series of panels on the exterior of Circumcision Pavilion (''Sünnet Odası'') in Topkapı Palace. At least some of these tiles are believed to date from the 1520s and feature large floral motifs in blue, white, and turquoise.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=56-60}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=237}} Both the Topkapı tiles and the mosque tiles from this early-16th-century period are traditionally attributed to Iznik, but they may have been produced in Istanbul itself in ceramic workshops located at [[Palace of the Porphyrogenitus|Tekfursaray]].{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=56-59}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=237-238}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}} Even if they come from Tekfursaray, their style is related to the style of ceramics being made in Iznik around the same time.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=59}} This includes the [[saz style|''saz'' style]]: a motif in which a variety of flowers are attached to gracefully curving stems with serrated leaves, appearing in the 16th century.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=237}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=56}} This continued to reflect earlier influences of the "International Timurid" style, but it also demonstrates the development of an increasingly distinct Ottoman artistic style at this time.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=237}}

[[File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5702.jpg|left|thumb|Details of tiles at the [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Kadırga|Sokullu Mehmed Pasha Mosque]] in Istanbul (1572), produced during the artistic apogee of [[Iznik tiles]]]]

The architect [[Mimar Sinan]] generally used tile decoration in a fairly restrained manner and seems to have preferred focusing on the architecture as a whole rather than on overwhelming decoration.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=442-443}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=74}} An exception to this austerity is the extensive tilework in the [[Rüstem Pasha Mosque]] (1561–62),{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=74}} which also marks the beginning of the artistic peak of [[Iznik pottery|Iznik ceramic art]] from the 1560s onward.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}} Blue colours predominate, but the important "tomato red" colour began to make an appearance. The repertoire of motifs includes [[tulip]]s, [[Hyacinth (plant)|hyacinths]], [[Dianthus caryophyllus|carnations]], [[rose]]s, [[pomegranate]]s, [[artichoke]] leaves, [[Narcissus (plant)|narcissus]], and Chinese "cloud" motifs.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=443}}[[File:Tiles from the Blue Mosque, Istanbul (6549288687).jpg|thumb|Detail of tiles in the [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque|Sultan Ahmed I Mosque]], Istanbul (circa 1617)]]

In the early 17th century, some features of 16th-century Iznik art began to fade, such as the use of embossed tomato red. At the same time, some motifs became more rigidly geometric and stylized.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=445}} The enormous [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] (or "Blue Mosque"), begun in 1609 and inaugurated in 1617, contains the richest collection of tilework of any Ottoman mosque. According to official Ottoman documents it contained as many as 20,000 tiles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=445}} The massive undertaking of decorating such a large building strained the tile industry in Iznik.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=106-107}} While the craftsmen at Iznik were still capable of producing rich and colourful tiles throughout the 17th century, there was an overall decline in quality, caused in part by the devastation of the [[Celali revolts]] and by an overall decline in commissions.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=107-108}}

Some of the production continued in the city of [[Kütahya]] instead of Iznik.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Kütahya, unlike Iznik, had not become solely reliant on imperial commissions and was thus better able to weather the changes of this century. Many of its artisans were Armenians who continued to produce tiles for churches and other buildings.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=725}} Tile manufacture declined still further in the second half of the 17th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} By this period, blue and turquoise colours increasingly predominated, and many commissioned works limited their patterns to single tiles instead of creating larger patterns across multiple tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=107-108}}[[File:Hekimoglu Pasha Mosque DSCF7162.jpg|thumb|Tekfursaray tiles in the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque|Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa Mosque]] (1734), including a depiction of the Great Mosque of Mecca]]

=== Classical Iznik tiles ===

Tile production in Iznik came to an end in the 18th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} [[Ahmed III|Ahmet III]] and his grand vizier attempted to revive the tile industry by establishing a new workshop between 1719 and 1724 at Tekfursaray in Istanbul.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}}{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} Production continued here for a while but the tiles from this period are not comparable in quality to earlier Iznik tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Pottery production also continued and even increased at Kütahya, where new styles developed alongside imitations of older classical Ottoman designs.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=115}}{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} The colours of tiles in this period were mostly turquoise and dark cobalt blue, while a brownish-red, yellow, and a deep green also appearing. The background was often discoloured, colours often ran together slightly, and the patterns were again typically limited to single tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}}{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} After the [[Patrona Halil rebellion]] in 1730, which deposed Ahmet III and executed his grand vizier, the Tekfursaray kilns were left without a patron and quickly ceased to function.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} The shortage of quality tiles in the 18th century also caused Iznik tiles from older buildings to be reused and moved to new ones on multiple occasions.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}} Ultimately, tilework decoration in Ottoman architecture lost its significance during this century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}}

{{See also|Iznik pottery}}{{Multiple image

| image1 = Topkapi circumcision room tiles DSCF2350.jpg

| image2 = Topkapi circumcision room tiles DSCF2278.jpg

| caption2 = Details of blue-and-white tiles (early 16th century) on the exterior of the Circumcision Room

| caption1 = Tiles on the exterior of the Circumcision Room in [[Topkapı Palace]] (early 16th century, with tiles from later period in the lower middle)

}}

The city of Iznik had been a center of pottery production under the Ottomans since the 15th century, but until the mid-16th century it was mainly concerned with producing pottery vessels.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=73}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=110}} There is little evidence of large-scale tile manufacture in Iznik before this time.<ref name=":06" /> In the late 15th century, in the 1470s or 1480s, the Iznik industry had grown in prominence and patronage and began producing a new "blue-and-white" [[fritware]] which adapted and incorporated Chinese motifs in its decoration.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=28-34}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=234}} Some of these blue-and-white ceramics appear in tile form in the decoration in the [[Sultan Mosque, Manisa|Hafsa Hatun Mosque]] (1522) in Manisa and in the [[Çoban Mustafa Pasha]] Mosque (1523) in [[Gebze]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}} The [[Hadim Ibrahim Pasha Mosque]] (1551) also contains panels of well-executed tiles featuring [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphic]] and floral decoration in cobalt blue, white, olive green, turquoise, and pale manganese purple.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=70}} The most extraordinary tile panels from this period are a series of panels on the exterior of Circumcision Pavilion (''Sünnet Odası'') in Topkapı Palace. The tiles in this composition have been dated to various periods within the 16th century and some were probably moved here during a restoration of the pavilion in the first half of the 17th century. Nonetheless, at least some of the tiles are believed to date from the 1520s and feature large floral motifs in blue, white, and turquoise.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=56-60}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=237}} Both the Topkapı tiles and the mosque tiles from this early-16th-century period are traditionally attributed to Iznik, but they may have been produced in Istanbul itself in ceramic workshops located at [[Palace of the Porphyrogenitus|Tekfursaray]].{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=56-59}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|pp=237-238}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}} Even if they come from Tekfursaray, their style is related to the style of ceramics being made in Iznik around the same time.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=59}} This includes the [[saz style|''saz'' style]]: a motif in which a variety of flowers are attached to gracefully curving stems with serrated leaves.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=237}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=56}} This continued to reflect earlier influences of the "International Timurid" style, but it also demonstrates the development of an increasingly distinct Ottoman artistic style at this time.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=237}}

[[File:Tiles of the Rüstem Paşa Mosque (6424912727).jpg|thumb|Details of tiles at the [[Rüstem Pasha Mosque]] (circa 1561), with early use of the "tomato red" colour|left]]

Ceramic art from Iznik reached its apogee in the second half of the 16th century, particularly with the advent of the "tomato red" colour in its compositions.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}} At the same time, Iznik grew into its role as a major center of tile production rather than just dishware.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=73, 74, 78}} Rather than merely highlighting certain architectural features (e.g. windows) with tile panels, large-scale murals of tilework became more common.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}} For this purpose, square tiles were also now preferred over the hexagonal tiles of the older Iranian tradition.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=224}} This was around the same time that Mimar Sinan, chief court architect, was also reaching the pinnacle of his career. Iznik ceramics and classical Ottoman architecture thus reached their greatest heights of achievement around the same time, during the reign of Suleiman and his immediate successors.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=441-442}} Sinan generally used tile decoration in a fairly restrained manner and seems to have preferred focusing on the architecture as a whole rather than on overwhelming decoration.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=442-443}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=74}} For example, Sinan's most celebrated works, the [[Süleymaniye Mosque]] (1550–57) and the [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]] (1568-1574), feature tile decoration restricted to certain areas.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=442-443}} Even the [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Kadırga|Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque]] (1568-1572), which is known for its extensive high-quality tile decoration, still concentrates and focuses this decoration onto the wall surrounding the mihrab instead of on the whole mosque interior.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=443}} The major exception to this is the [[Rüstem Pasha Mosque]] (1561–62), whose interior and outer portico are extensively covered in Iznik tiles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=74}} The mosque is even regarded as a "museum" of Iznik tiles from this period.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=443}}{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}} Judging by comparisons with Sinan's other works, the exceptional use of tilework in this mosque may have been due to a specific request by the wealthy patron, [[Rüstem Pasha]], rather than a voluntary decision by Sinan himself.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=442}} There is no evidence that Sinan was closely involved in the production of tiles and it's likely that he merely decided where tile decoration would be placed and made sure that the craftsmen were capable.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=445}} Doğan Kuban also argues that while the vivid tiles inside the mihrab of the Rüstem Pasha Mosque could have symbolized an image of [[Jannah|Paradise]], tile decoration in Ottoman mosques did not generally have deeper symbolic meanings.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=442-443}} Moroever, unlike [[Byzantine mosaics]], tiles were also not well-suited to curved surfaces and as a result they were not used to decorate domes, which were decorated with painted motifs instead.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=443}}

The tilework in the Rüstem Pasha Mosque also marks the beginning of the artistic peak of Iznik tile art from the 1560s onward.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}} Blue colours predominate, but the important "tomato red" colour began to make an appearance. The repertoire of motifs includes [[tulip]]s, [[Hyacinth (plant)|hyacinths]], [[Dianthus caryophyllus|carnations]], [[rose]]s, [[pomegranate]]s, [[artichoke]] leaves, [[Narcissus (plant)|narcissus]], and Chinese "cloud" motifs.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=75}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=443}} Around 1560 the colour palette of Iznik tiles also shifted slightly. With the introduction of tomato red, which was perfected in the following years, some colours like turquoise and manganese purple stopped appearing, while a new shade of green also appeared. This shift is partly evident in the Rüstem Pasha Mosque and especially in the extensive tilework in the tomb of Haseki Hürrem (1558) and the tomb of Suleiman (1566), both located behind the Süleymaniye Mosque.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=75-76}} The highest artistic form of Iznik tiles was achieved soon after this during the reign of [[Selim II]], who succeeded his father Suleiman, and continued until the end of the century. Some of the most exceptional tilework examples from this period can be found in the [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Kadırga|Sokullu Mehmed Pasha Mosque]], the [[Piyale Pasha Mosque]] (1574), the tomb of Selim II (1576), the small Takkeci İbrahim Ağa Mosque (1592), the tomb of Murad III (1595), and in some parts of the Topkapı Palace.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=443-445}} The tilework panels in the Chamber of Murad III (1578) in Topkapı Palace and in the mihrab area of the [[Atik Valide Mosque]] (1583) in Üsküdar also show a trend of using colours in more abstract ways, such as the adding of red spots on flower petals of different colours, which is a detail particular to Ottoman art.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=445}} As noted by Arthur Lane in his seminal study of Iznik tiles published in 1957, the effect of Iznik tilework, when successfully employed in Ottoman domed interiors, results in a feeling of lightness and harmony, where the intricate details of the tiles themselves do not overwhelm the onlooker.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=445}} Tile decoration in the provinces was typically of lesser quality to that found in the main imperial centers of patronage. However some wealthy local patrons probably imported tiles from Istanbul, which explains the high-quality tilework in some distant monuments such as the [[Behram Pasha Mosque]] (1572–73) in [[Diyarbakır|Diyarbakir]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=443}}

<gallery class="center" widths="175" heights="150" caption="Iznik tilework in the second half of the 16th century">

File:Istanbul Roxelane Mausoleum in 2017 3635.jpg|Tiles in the Tomb of [[Hurrem Sultan|Roxelana]], Istanbul (1558)

File:Rustem Pasha Mosque mihrab tiles DSCF2406.jpg|Tiles in the mihrab of the Rüstem Pasha Mosque, Istanbul (circa 1561)

File:DSC04138 Istanbul - Rüstem Pasha camii - Foto G. Dall'Orto 26-5-2006.jpg|Tiles in the outer portico of the Rüstem Pasha Mosque, Istanbul (circa 1561)

File:Tomb of Suleiman DSCF5556.jpg|TIles in the [[Süleymaniye Mosque|Mausoleum of Suleiman]], Istanbul (1566)

File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5719.jpg|Tile decoration in the [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Kadırga|Sokullu Mehmed Pasha Mosque]], Istanbul (1572)

File:Sokollu Mehmet Pasha mosque 5702.jpg|Detail of tiles in the Sokullu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Istanbul (1572)

File:Iznik tiles in in Selimiye mosque in Edirne 6271.jpg|Tilework near the mihrab in the [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]], Edirne (circa 1574)

File:Iznik tiles in in Selimiye mosque in Edirne 6267.jpg|Detail of tiles in the Selimiye Mosque, Edirne (circa 1574)

File:Iznik tiles in in Selimiye mosque in Edirne 3255.jpg|Detail of tiles in the Selimiye Mosque, Edirne (circa 1574)

File:Tomb of Selim II DSCF2886.jpg|Tile panel at the entrance to the Tomb of [[Selim II]] in Istanbul (1576)

File:Atik Valide Mosque 6592.jpg|Tiles in the [[Atik Valide Mosque]], Istanbul (1583)

</gallery>

In the early 17th century, some features of 16th-century Iznik tiles began to fade, such as the use of embossed tomato red. At the same time, some motifs became more rigidly geometric and stylized.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=445}} The enormous [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque]] (or "Blue Mosque"), begun in 1609 and inaugurated in 1617, contains the richest collection of tilework of any Ottoman mosque. According to official Ottoman documents it contained as many as 20,000 tiles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=445}} The dominant colours are blue and green, while the motifs are typical of the 17th century: tulips, carnations, [[cypress]]es, roses, [[vine]]s, flower vases, and Chinese cloud motifs.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=446}} The best tiles in the mosque, located on the back wall on the balcony level, were originally made for the Topkapı Palace in the late 16th century and were reused here.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=229}} The massive undertaking of decorating such a large building strained the tile industry in Iznik and some of the tilework is repetitive and inconsistent in its quality.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=106-107}} The much smaller [[Çinili Mosque|Çinili ("Tiled") Mosque]] (1640) in Üsküdar is also covered in tilework on the inside.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} The most harmonious examples of tile decoration in 17th-century Ottoman architecture are the Yerevan Kiosk and Baghdad Kiosk in Topkapı Palace, built in 1635 and 1639, respectively.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=433-435, 447}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=229}} Both their exterior and interior walls are covered in tiles. Some of the tiles are ''cuerda seca'' tiles of a much earlier period, reused from elsewhere, but most are blue-and-white tiles that imitate early 16th-century Iznik work.{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=229}}

While the craftsmen at Iznik were still capable of producing rich and colourful tiles throughout the 17th century, there was an overall decline in quality. This was a result of a decline in imperial commissions, as fewer major building projects were sponsored by ruling elites during this period.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=107-108}} The [[Celali rebellions|Celali revolts]] in the early 17th century also had a significant impact, as [[Evliya Çelebi]] records that the number of tile workshops in Iznik during this time dropped from 900 to only 9.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Some of the production continued in the city of [[Kütahya]] instead of Iznik.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Kütahya, unlike Iznik, had not become solely reliant on imperial commissions and as a result it weathered the changes more successfully. Many of its artisans were Armenians who continued to produce tiles for churches and other buildings.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=725}}

Tile manufacture declined further in the second half of the century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Nonetheless, the interior of the [[New Mosque, Istanbul|"New Mosque" or Yeni Cami]] in the [[Eminönü]] neighbourhood, completed in 1663, is a late example of lavish Iznik tile decoration in an imperial mosque. The finest tiles in the complex are reserved for the sultan's private gallery and lounge (the ''Hünkâr Kasrı'').{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=446-447}} By this period, blue and turquoise colours increasingly predominated, and many commissioned works limited their patterns to single tiles instead of creating larger patterns across multiple tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|pp=107-108}} Tiles like this were imported in significant quantities to Egypt around this time, as can be seen in the [[Aqsunqur Mosque]] (otherwise known as the "Blue Mosque") in [[Cairo]], which was renovated in 1652 by Ibrahim Agha, a local [[Janissary]] commander.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=107}}<ref name=":422">{{Cite book|last=Behrens-Abouseif|first=Doris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=INsmT6zjAl8C&pg=PP1|title=Islamic Architecture in Cairo: An Introduction|publisher=E.J. Brill|year=1989|isbn=9789004096264|location=Leiden, the Netherlands|page=116}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" widths="175" caption="Iznik tiles in the 17th century">

File:Blue Mosque balcony tiles DSCF4587.jpg|Tiles (with painted decoration above) on the back wall of the [[Sultan Ahmed Mosque|Sultan Ahmed I Mosque]], Istanbul (circa 1617)

File:Tiles from the Blue Mosque, Istanbul (6549288687).jpg|Detail of tiles in the Sultan Ahmed I Mosque, Istanbul (circa 1617)

File:Circumcision room - Topkapi Palace (8393771437).jpg|Tiled interior of the Baghdad Kiosk in Topkapı Palace (1639)

File:Cinili Mosque (Uskudar) DSCF4378.jpg|Tiled mihrab of the Çinili Mosque (1640)

File:Aqsunqur Mosque DSCF9697.jpg|Iznik tiles in the [[Aqsunqur Mosque]] in Cairo, Egypt (1652)

File:Sultans Pavilion at Yeni Camii 131.jpg|The tiled interior of the ''Hünkâr Kasrı'' (sultan's pavilion) at the [[New Mosque, Istanbul|New Mosque]], Istanbul (circa 1663)

</gallery>

=== Tekfursaray and Kütahya tiles (18th century) ===

[[File:Hekimoglu Pasha Mosque DSCF7162.jpg|thumb|Tekfursaray tiles in the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque|Hekimoğlu Ali Paşa Mosque]] (1734), including a depiction of the Great Mosque of Mecca]]

Tile production in Iznik came to an end in the 18th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Ahmet III and his grand vizier attempted to revive the tile industry by establishing a new workshop between 1719 and 1724 at Tekfursaray in Istanbul, where a previous workshop had existed in the early 16th century.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}}{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} Production continued here for a while but the tiles from this period are not comparable to earlier Iznik tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Pottery production also continued and even increased at Kütahya, where new styles developed alongside imitations of older classical Ottoman designs.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=115}}{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} The colours of tiles in this period were mostly turquoise and dark cobalt blue, while a brownish-red, yellow, and a deep green also appearing. The background was often discoloured, colours often ran together slightly, and the patterns were again typically limited to single tiles.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}}{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} The earliest recorded Tekfursaray tiles are those made in 1724–1725 for the mihrab of the older Cezeri Kasım Pasha Mosque (1515) in Eyüp, Istanbul.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}}{{Sfn|Sumner-Boyd|Freely|2010|p=371}} Tekfursaray tiles are also found in the [[Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque]] (1734), on the [[Fountain of Ahmed III|Ahmed III Fountain]] (1729) near Hagia Sophia, and in some of the rooms and corridors of the Harem section in Topkapı Palace.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}} Kütahya tiles are present in Istanbul in the Yeni Valide Mosque in Üsküdar (1708–1711), the Beylerbeyi Mosque (1777–1778), and arts of Topkapı Palace, and well as in mosques in other cities like Konya and Antalya.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}}

The Kütahya and Tekfursary kilns notably produced a number of tiles and groups of tiles that were painted with illustrations of the Great Mosque of Mecca. These appear in multiple buildings the 18th century, but some examples of this appeared even earlier in Iznik tiles from the late 17th century.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729-731}} Earlier examples show the [[Kaaba]] and the surrounding colonnades of the mosque in a more abstract style. Later examples in the 18th century, influenced by European art, employ [[Perspective (graphical)|perspective]] in depicting the mosque and they sometimes depict the entire city of Mecca.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} Depictions of [[Medina]] and the [[Al-Masjid an-Nabawi|Prophet's Mosque]] also appear in other specimens of the time. Examples of these pictorial tile paintings can be seen in the collections of several museums as well as inside some mosques (e.g. the Hekimoğlu Ali Pasha Mosque) and in several rooms at Topkapı Palace, such as the tiles adorning the mihrab of the prayer room of the Black Eunuchs.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729-731}}

After the Patrona Halil rebellion in 1730, which deposed Ahmet III and executed his grand vizier, the Tekfursaray kilns were left without a patron and quickly ceased to function.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} The shortage of quality tiles in the 18th century also caused Iznik tiles from older buildings to be reused and moved to new ones on multiple occasions.{{Sfn|Carswell|2006|p=114}} For example, when repairs were being done at Topkapı Palace in 1738 old tiles had to be removed from the Edirne Palace and shipped to Istanbul instead.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=729}} Ultimately, tilework decoration in Ottoman architecture lost its significance during the 18th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Kütahya nonetheless did continue to produce decorative tiles up to the 19th century, though the quality deteriorated in the late 18th century.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=732}} Some of the potters in the city were Armenian Christians and some of the tiles were commissioned for Armenian churches. Christian tile decoration of this period often depicted saints, angels, the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]], and [[Bible|biblical]] scenes. Examples can be found at the [[Saint Gregory the Illuminator Church of Galata|Krikor Lusaroviç Church]] in Tophane, Istanbul, and the Surp Astvazazin Church in Ankara, among others. Some of the tiles were exported further abroad and examples of them have been found in Jerusalem, Cairo, and [[Venice]].{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=731}} A moderately successful effort to revive Ottoman tile production occurred under Abdülhamid II in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, partly under the influence of the First National Architectural Movement. This period saw tiles produced for several new mosques, schools, and government buildings. These workshops eventually closed down after the First World War.{{Sfn|Öney|2002|p=732-733}}

== Painted decoration ==

Painted decoration was an essential part of the decoration of Ottoman buildings and it covered interior walls, ceilings, and the inside of domes. However, it has been relatively neglected in studies of Ottoman architecture.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=737}} This is probably in part because very little original painted decoration has been preserved, since much of it was redone or replaced in more recent periods.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=737 and after}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}}{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}} Paint, as well as [[gold leaf]], was applied on a variety of mediums including plaster, wood, leather or cloth, and stone. For plaster decoration, there were generally two types: {{Lang|tr|kalemişi}} and {{Lang|tr|malakâri}}. The first refers to paint being applied directly to plaster, while the second referred to applying paint onto [[relief]] decoration sculpted beforehand. The design of the ornamentation was often [[stenciled]] onto the plaster first, using paper pierced with pin holes in the shape of the motifs, over which coal dust was rubbed to leave outlines on the walls that were then painted.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=737}}

The motifs of this decoration were typically similar to the motifs used in other contemporary arts, such as [[Ottoman illumination|manuscript illumination]]. The painters, who came from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds, were either independent artists or artisans already employed by the imperial palace, hired specifically to decorate the building.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=737–738}} The patrons who commissioned the buildings may have laid down certain parameters or instructions for the decorators, such as requesting inscriptions that highlighted their social status or a political message.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=739}}

=== Early trends ===

[[File:Murad II Mosque DSCF5136.jpg|thumb|Partially preserved [[mural]] decoration inside the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Muradiye Mosque]] in Edirne, circa 1436]]

Early examples indicate that Ottoman decoration developed a preference for floriate motifs.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=743}} One such motif that was popular throughout the history of Ottoman art is the ''rumî'' style,{{efn|The style is most likely named after Anatolia, which was known previously to Muslims as ''[[Rum (endonym)|Rum]]'' or the "land of Rome", referring to the [[Eastern Roman Empire]].{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=743}}}} which consists of scrolling, spiraling, and/or intertwining stems with stylized leaves. This style was already in use in Anatolia in Seljuk art and in [[Byzantine art]].{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=743–744}} The earliest Ottoman example may be the partly-preserved painted decoration that can still be seen around a window in the [[Kirgizlar Mausoleum]] in Iznik, which is dated to the reign of [[Orhan]] ({{Reign|1324|1360}}).{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}}

Early Ottoman decorative motifs remained similar to those found in earlier Seljuk architecture and in neighboring Islamic cultures, as attested by a few surviving examples from the 15th century.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=739–743}} One of the most important examples is the partially-preserved [[mural]] decoration inside the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Muradiye Mosque]] in Edirne, which still dates back to its construction circa 1436. The ornamentation inside the southeastern (qibla) iwan depicts natural landscapes with stylized flowers and trees that appear to reflect the same artistic styles used in book illustrations and [[Islamic miniature|miniatures]], particularly those from the [[Timurid Empire]] further east.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=742}} Painted decoration of a similar style is also found in the Mausoleum of [[Cem Sultan]] in the [[Muradiye Complex|Muradiye complex]] in Bursa, dating from the late 15th century. There the motifs are more abstract and predominantly feature stylized vases of flowers, alongside calligraphic compositions, all rendered in a highly vivid colours.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=742}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=|pp=59, 167}}

Another floriate style that appeared in Ottoman decoration from the 15th century onward is ''hatayî'', which consists in large part of [[peonies]] and leaves shown in varying stages of budding and blooming. This style had its origins further east in China or [[Turkestan]] and it appeared in [[Islamic art]] from the 13th century onward.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}}

=== Classical era ===

[[File:Gazi Ahmet Pasa Mosque 2836.jpg|thumb|A painted wooden ceiling under the gallery of the [[Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque]] in Istanbul, circa 1554. This mixes a number of design elements including a central medallion, and [[Saz style|''saz''-style]] motifs, and "Chinese clouds".]]

In the early 16th century, the range of decorative motifs in Ottoman art expanded, as attested in other mediums of Ottoman art such as tiles and manuscript decoration. Only a few fragments of painted ornament have survived in architecture from this era, but a similar trend most likely occurred in this medium as well.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}} New elements included a Chinese-inspired "cloud" motif, which took a form of curving or scrolling cloud ribbons, also apparent on contemporary tilework.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}}{{Sfn|Aslanapa|1971|p=332}}

In the second quarter of the century, the ''[[Saz style|saz]]'' style (also mentioned above for tile decoration) was developed by Ottoman artist [[Şahkulu]]. It was derived from the ''hatayî'' style and added new motifs, most notably large serrated leaves. It was less formal and geometrically rigid, allowing these motifs to be combined and arranged in a wide variety of ways to fill any space.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}} One of the finest examples of this style surviving from the 16th century is found in the [[Kılıç Ali Pasha Mosque]] (circa 1581), where it is painted on oil cloth stretched over the lower part of the wooden [[Dikka|muezzin's gallery]].{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}}

[[File:Istanbul IMG 1017 (6293847595).jpg|left|thumb|Example of a [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphic]] medallion on a dome [[pendentive]] inside the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul]]

The most monumental painted compositions were employed in and around the domes and semi-domes of Ottoman buildings. For much of the Ottoman era, domes were typically decorated with a circular [[Medallion (architecture)|medallion]]-like composition at the center of the dome that was filled with a calligraphic rendition of Qur'anic verses. The motif of the central medallion radiated outward to cover the rest of the dome, with the details filled by ''rumî'', ''hatayî'', or ''saz'' motifs. This type of dome decoration is well-known from the 16th century onward but it probably had appeared earlier in the 15th century as well.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=748}} The verses written in the central medallion were often selected from the [[an-Nur]] ("Light") chapter of the Qur'an and may have symbolically imparted a celestial or heavenly connotation to Ottoman domes.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=747–748}} Another common element of decoration in this context is the painting of circular calligraphic medallions on the pendentives or on the spandrels of arches that support the dome. These calligraphic compositions featured the various [[Names of God in Islam|epithets of God in Islam]] or the names of figures such as [[Muhammad]] and the [[Rashidun Caliphs]].{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=751}}

[[File:Chamber of Murad III dome (with flash) DSCF1878.jpg|thumb|Painted dome of the Chamber of Murad III in Topkapı Palace, circa 1578, with ''rumî'' scrollwork radiating from the center of the dome]]

Other types of motifs were also used to cover the inside of domes, such as bands of ''rumî'' motifs radiating from the center or other types of ''rumî'' [[scrollwork]].{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=748–751}} A well-preserved example of the latter is found in the dome of the Chamber of Murad III in Topkapı Palace (circa 1578), consisting of gold ''rumî'' scrollwork over a red background. The painted decoration is enhanced with pieces of rock crystal set into the dome that were likely meant to emulate stars.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=751}} This latter detail is something also found inside the dome of [[Süleymaniye Mosque#Mausoleums|Süleyman's mausoleum]] in Istanbul.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=220}} The [[intrados]] of large supporting arches below the domes, as well as other supporting elements like [[Corbel|consoles]], were also covered in a variety of painted interlacing motifs.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=751–755}}

The ''şukûfe'' style – developed by the successor of Şahkulu, Kara Memi – consists of depictions of garden flowers such as [[Tulip|tulips]], [[carnations]], and [[Hyacinth|hyacinths]].{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=747}} Unlike the other styles mentioned above, it was rarely employed on a large scale in architectural decoration, being more characteristic of tilework and book illustrations. Instead, it appears on some smaller architectural elements typically seen at close quarters,{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=747}} such as wooden cupboards and window shutters found in the Chamber of Murad III in Topkapı Palace.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=747}}{{Sfn|Aslanapa|1971|p=332}}

Unfortunately, much of the painted decoration from the classical era of Mimar Sinan in the 16th century has been lost.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=107}}{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}} The present-day painted decoration inside the domes of many mosques of the era, including the Süleymaniye in Istanbul and the Selimiye in Edirne, dates from restorations in much later centuries.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=235, 265}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=290, 311}} In the Süleymaniye Mosque – whose dome had to be repaired following its collapse in the 1766 earthquake{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=235}} – the original decoration was described by 16th-century writer Ramazanzade Mehmed as featuring many "sun-like disks" and medallion designs in gold and silver.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=216}} (A 19th-century restoration by the [[Fossati brothers]] repainted the dome in vaguely Baroque style and this decoration has been preserved today.{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=235}}) Only calligraphic inscriptions, which were often faithfully restored, have tended to be preserved to some extent.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=|pp=107 (see also descriptions of individual monuments)}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|p=235 (for the Süleymaniye Mosque)}}

[[File:Atik Valide Mosque DSCF0728.jpg|thumb|Painted wooden ceiling under the gallery of the Atik Valide Mosque in [[Üsküdar]], circa 1583, with [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric design]] framing floral motifs]]

However, some examples of preserved paintwork from the 16th century can still be found here and there. In addition to the examples mentioned above, one important instance is found in the [[Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque]] (circa 1554). Like many of the other preserved examples, the original paintwork visible today is found on the wooden ceilings under the mosque's galleries. The paint is combined with some low-relief plasterwork and [[gilding]], and the predominant colours are red and gold against a blue ground. The design features a central medallion similar to those sometimes used in [[Ushak carpet|Ushak carpets]], around which are scrolling vegetal motifs, Chinese clouds, and ''saz''-style elements.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|pp=383–384}} Another example is the painted wood under the galleries of the [[Atik Valide Mosque]] in Üsküdar (circa 1583), which features a geometric pattern of polygons filled with floral motifs.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=290}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|pp=245–246}}{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}} Some traces of original painting can also be seen on the ceiling of the vestibule of the [[Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque, Kadırga|Sokollu Mehmed Pasha Mosque]] and under some of its galleries.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=341}} The [[Muradiye Mosque, Manisa|Muradiye Mosque]] in Manisa preserves original paintwork on its galleries, its mihrab, and its stone minbar.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=263}}

==Stone carving==

[[File:Yesil Cami 7799.jpg|thumb|Stone-carved [[arabesque]] and [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]] at the Green Mosque in Bursa (1412–1424)]]

Compared to the Anatolian Seljuk architecture that came before it, Ottoman architecture treated stone carving as a less important decorative medium. Doğan Kuban argues that this may be because the artisans responsible for stone carving under the Seljuks and Beyliks were concentrated in central and eastern Anatolia, as opposed to western Anatolia where early Ottoman architecture developed. The Ottomans also did not continue the Seljuk tradition of constructing monumental, highly ornate stone [[Portal (architecture)|portals]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=237}} Lastly, as the classical Ottoman style took form, large solid walls that were common in more traditional structures were superseded by highly articulated structures with many elements joined together as part of a more complex whole. This would have made the decoration of large wall surfaces a much less important element of building design.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}}

=== Painted decoration ===

[[File:Suleymaniye DSCF3657.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Capital (architecture)|Capital]] carved with [[muqarnas]] at the Süleymaniye Mosque (1550–1557)]]

[[File:Murad II Mosque DSCF5136.jpg|thumb|Partially preserved [[mural]] decoration inside the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne, circa 1436, depicting stylized trees and plants alongside calligraphic inscriptions]]

In the early Ottoman period, an exception to this dearth of traditional stone carving is the Green Mosque in Bursa, which features skilled carving of marble surfaces into vegetal arabesque and calligraphic motifs.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} This was generally not repeated in subsequent Ottoman monuments, with the partial exception of [[Mihrab|mihrabs]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=447, 449}} Nonetheless, stone carving was still used to enrich the details of building. Until the 18th century, high-quality stonework remained evident in the use of [[muqarnas]] (or "stalactite") carving in entrance portals, [[minaret]] balconies, [[Molding (decorative)|moldings]], and column [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]]. It is also evident in the geometric [[openwork]] in stone balustrades and marble [[Minbar|minbars]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}}

Painted decoration was an essential part of the decoration of Ottoman buildings, covering interior walls, ceilings, and domes. However, very little original painted decoration has been preserved in Ottoman buildings, as they were frequently repainted during later restorations.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=737 and after}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}}{{Sfn|Goodwin|1971|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}}{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2011|p=|loc=See descriptions of individual monuments}} Paint, as well as [[gold leaf]], was applied on a variety of mediums including plaster, wood, leather or cloth, and stone. For plaster decoration, there were generally two types: {{Lang|tr|kalemişi}} and {{Lang|tr|malakâri}}. The first refers to paint being applied directly to plaster, while the second referred to applying paint onto [[relief]] decoration sculpted beforehand. The design of the ornamentation was often [[stenciled]] onto the plaster first, using paper pierced with pin holes in the shape of the motifs, over which coal dust was rubbed to leave outlines on the walls that were then painted.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=737}} The painters, who came from many different ethnic and religious backgrounds, were either independent artists or artisans already employed by the imperial palace, hired specifically to decorate the building.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=737–738}}

The motifs of painted decoration were typically similar to those used in other contemporary arts, such as [[Ottoman illumination|manuscript illumination]].{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=737–738}} Early examples indicate that Ottoman decoration developed a preference for floriate motifs.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=743}} One such motif that was popular throughout the history of Ottoman art is the ''rumî'' style, whose existence predates the Ottomans and which consists of scrolling, spiraling, and/or intertwining stems with stylized leaves.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=743–744}} Another floriate style that appeared in Ottoman decoration from the 15th century onward is ''hatayî'', which consists in large part of [[peonies]] and leaves shown in varying stages of budding and blooming. This style had its origins further east in China or [[Turkestan]] and it appeared in [[Islamic art]] from the 13th century onward.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}} One of the most important examples of early Ottoman painted decoration is the partially-preserved [[mural]] decoration inside the [[Muradiye Mosque, Edirne|Murad II Mosque]] in Edirne, which still dates back to its construction circa 1436. The ornamentation inside the southeastern (qibla) iwan depicts natural landscapes with stylized flowers and trees that appear to reflect the same artistic styles used in book illustrations and [[Islamic miniature|miniatures]], particularly those from the [[Timurid Empire]] further east.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=742}}[[File:Gazi Ahmet Pasa Mosque 2836.jpg|thumb|A painted wooden ceiling under the gallery of the [[Kara Ahmed Pasha Mosque]] in Istanbul, circa 1554. This mixes a number of design elements including a central medallion, [[Saz style|''saz''-style]] motifs, and "Chinese clouds".|left]]

Aside from these features, which were characteristic of buildings, Ottoman tombstone are notable for their very rich stone-carved ornamentation. The decoration of tombstones included vegetal and floral motifs, stone tops in the shape of headgear reflecting the social status of the deceased (usually for men), and, most consistently of all, inscriptions in graceful calligraphy. The level of ornamentation increased after the late 17th century and followed the changes in style that took place in architecture.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=449}}

In the second quarter of the 16th century, the ''saz'' style (also mentioned above for tile decoration) was developed by Ottoman artist [[Şahkulu]]. It was derived from the ''hatayî'' style and added new motifs, most notably large serrated leaves. It was less formal and geometrically rigid, allowing these motifs to be combined and arranged in a wide variety of ways to fill any space.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=744}}

The most monumental painted compositions were employed in and around the domes and semi-domes of Ottoman buildings. For much of the Ottoman era, domes were typically decorated with a circular [[Medallion (architecture)|medallion]]-like composition at the center of the dome that was filled with a calligraphic rendition of Qur'anic verses. The motif of the central medallion radiated outward to cover the rest of the dome, with the details filled by ''rumî'', ''hatayî'', or ''saz'' motifs. This type of dome decoration is well-known from the 16th century onward but it probably had appeared earlier in the 15th century as well.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=748}}[[File:Ahmed Has Odası - Harem-i Hümayûn - Topkapı Sarayı, İstanbul (2275201973).jpg|thumb|Painted wood decoration in the Fruit Room of Topkapı Palace (1705), depicting fruit bowls and vases of flowers]]In the later 17th century, painted decoration underwent a gradual shift in style that can be attributed to European influence. Among other trends, [[shading]] was introduced to what had previously been areas of flat colour.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=755}} This was evident not only in new buildings but also in older buildings whose decoration was redone after this period. In some of the latter cases, the traditional designs were retained during restoration but they were updated to include shading.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=751, 755}} Around the same time (in the second half of the 17th century), a new style known as ''Edirnekārī'' began to appear. It primarily depicted flowers, a traditional Ottoman motif, but with an increased level of [[Realism (arts)|naturalism]] not previously seen in Ottoman art.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=|pp=36–37}} The reign of Ahmet III ({{Reign|1703|1730}}), which include the years of the [[Tulip Period]] (1718–1730), saw the popularization of a style derived from this, featuring plentiful depictions of flowers in vases and bowls of fruit, sometimes with shading.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=755–756}} The most vivid example of this is the so-called Fruit Room, created by Ahmet III inside Topkapı Palace in 1705.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=755–756}} This new style remained popular until the end of the century.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=755–756}}

[[File:Istanbul, fontana di tophane, 1732, 03,2.jpg|thumb|Floral motifs carved in marble on the [[Tophane Fountain]] in Istanbul (1732), typical of the Tulip Period style]]

[[File:03345-Istanbul-DolmabahcePalace (3446005767).jpg|thumb|Dome of the Ceremonial Hall in the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] in Istanbul (1843–1856), painted with ''[[trompe-l'œil]]'']]

In the early 18th century, around the Tulip Period, diverse floral motifs were also added to the decorative repertoire of buildings.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} With the advent of the Ottoman Baroque in the 18th century, Ottoman stone carving borrowed motifs directly from the relief ornamentation in French [[Rococo architecture]], including acanthus leaves, shells, baroque moldings, and mixtilinear arch forms.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=517}} This was evident first and foremost in the fountains and sebils that became common in Istanbul from the early 18th century on.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=517–518}}

The advent of the Ottoman Baroque architectural style in the 1740s also brought new motifs of European origin or influence.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=}} For example, traditional Ottoman medallion designs could now be replaced with European-style [[Cartouche (design)|cartouches]].{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=755}} By the end of the 18th century, European influence continued to grow and the new repertoire of motifs included [[Garland|garlands]], ribbons, flower bouquets, and baskets of roses. Decoration could now be painted to appear three-dimensional, adding a new visual effect even when otherwise traditional motifs were used.{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=756–758}} The ''[[trompe-l'œil]]'' technique was also introduced, particularly during the reign of [[Abdülmecid I]] ({{Reign|1839|1861}}).{{Sfn|Wharton|2015|p=123}} Examples from this period can be seen inside the [[Ortaköy Mosque]] (1850s){{Sfn|Wharton|2015|p=|pp=129, 132–133}}{{Sfn|Bağcı|2002|p=|pp=758–759}} and in the [[Dolmabahçe Palace|Dolmabaçe Palace]] (1843–1856).{{Sfn|Wharton|2015|p=132}}

=== Stone carving ===

[[File:Suleymaniye DSCF5835.jpg|thumb|Entrance portal with a [[muqarnas]] vault and inscription panels at the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul (1550–1557)|left]]

Compared to the Anatolian Seljuk architecture that came before it, Ottoman architecture treated stone carving as a less important decorative medium.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=237}} In the early Ottoman period, an exception to this paucity of traditional stone carving is the Green Mosque in Bursa, which features skilled carving of marble surfaces into vegetal arabesque and calligraphic motifs.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} This was generally not repeated in subsequent Ottoman monuments, with the partial exception of [[Mihrab|mihrabs]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=447, 449}}

Nonetheless, high-quality stone carving was still used to enrich the details of buildings throughout the Ottoman period, particularly for entrance portals, minaret balconies, niches, column [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]], and [[Molding (decorative)|moldings]]. One of the main decorative techniques in this medium was [[muqarnas]] (or "stalactite") carving, which is used in all of these aforementioned elements.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} Since the Seljuk era, muqarnas semi-vaults had been a typical feature of entrance portals and mihrabs, and this tradition continued in Ottoman mosques.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mülâyim |first=Selçuk |date=2020 |title=Mukarnas |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/mukarnas |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi |language=tr}}</ref>[[File:Istanbul Nuruosmaniye Mosque courtyard entrance side in 2015 1156.jpg|thumb|Entrance portal at the [[Nuruosmaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul (1748–1755), where traditional muqarnas has been replaced with [[Ottoman Baroque architecture|baroque-style]] moldings and acanthus friezes]]In the early 18th century, around the Tulip Period, diverse new floral motifs were added to the decorative repertoire of buildings.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=447}} These can be found in carved reliefs, employed most prolifically on the façades of fountains and sebils, which became common types of monuments commissioned during this century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=509–514}} The motifs include flowers, fruits, garlands, and rosettes, as well as designs developed from the ''hatayî'' style previously used for painted decoration.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=509}} With the advent of the Ottoman Baroque in the 18th century, Ottoman stone carving borrowed motifs directly from the relief ornamentation in French [[Rococo architecture]], including acanthus leaves, shells, baroque moldings, and mixtilinear arch forms.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=517}} Although many novelties were introduced, one traditional feature that continued throughout this period were the calligraphic inscriptions placed in panels over gates, in friezes, and in other prominent locations.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|p=|pp=66, 140, 193}}

==Gardens==

{{See also|Islamic garden}}

Ottoman gardens were relatively informal and tended to accommodate natural topography, unlike gardens in many other parts of the Islamic world – such as Iran or South Asia – where a more formal design was preferred with a symmetrical four-part division or other geometric layout.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=|pp=49, 106–107}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Goodwin |first=Godfrey |date=1988 |title=Gardens of the Dead in Ottoman Times |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523110 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=5 |pages=61–62 |doi=10.2307/1523110 |jstor=1523110 |issn=0732-2992}}</ref> Gardens could be planted with large trees for shade, smaller [[citrus]] trees, and flowerbeds.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=172}} [[Tulips]] were favored for flowers, even more so in the [[Tulip period|Tulip Period]] during the reign of Sultan [[Ahmed III|Ahmet III]] (r. 1703–1730).{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=|pp=172, 175}}

=== Palaces and leisure gardens ===

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One documented exception to the general trend of informal design was the Karabali Garden, laid out in the early 16th century in [[Kabataş, Beyoğlu|Kabataş]] (a district of Istanbul). It had four symmetrical quadrants divided by axial paths, making it an uncommon example of the ''[[chahar bagh]]''-type garden in an Ottoman context.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=173}}

Garden pavilions were a common feature of palaces and private gardens, designed to provide shelter for residents and visitors as they enjoyed views of the gardens. They are depicted in many [[Ottoman miniature]] paintings. They were often simple open kiosks with arches or columns supporting a sloped roof, but there were also more monumental tower-pavilions such as the Tower of Justice in Topkapı Palace or the Cihannüma in the [[Edirne Palace]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Atasoy |first=Nurhan |date=2004 |title=Ottoman Garden Pavilions and Tents |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1523340 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=21 |pages=15–19 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000050 |jstor=1523340 |issn=0732-2992|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Ottoman sultans and elites built many other palaces, leisure kiosks, and estates, especially along the shores of the [[Bosporus|Bosphorus]] and the [[Sea of Marmara]] around Istanbul. An illustration of the Bosphorus from 1738–9 shows many walled gardens lining both of its shores. These waterside palaces often had one side overlooking the water and the other side overlooking gardens.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=172}} The Topkapı-style tradition of a sprawling palace with multiple pavilions amidst gardens made a comeback in the late 19th century when Sultan [[Abdulhamid II]] (r. 1876–1909) moved his residence to the new [[Yıldız Palace]], which is set inside a large park area on the slopes overlooking the Bosphorus.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008|p=|pp=176–177}}

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The main developments in Ottoman architecture generally took place in the capital cities (Bursa, Edirne, Istanbul) and other major administrative centers that were closely associated with the Ottoman dynasty, where imperial patronage was most concentrated.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=679}} Beyond these imperial centers, Ottoman provincial governors and other local elites sponsored their own constructions, but the architectural style of these buildings varied depending on local context.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571-596}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=251}}

In Europe ([[Rumelia]]) and in western [[Anatolia]], Ottoman constructions mostly imitated the trends of the capital, though there were still local variations and eccentricities.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571-596}} In the [[Balkans]], the reign of [[Murad II]] ({{Reign|1421|1451}} with brief interruption) saw many renovations of early Ottoman buildings and also the construction of multiple new mosques and civic or religious complexes.{{Sfn|Boykov|2013|p=51-57}} Nearly all the other important Ottoman monuments in the European provinces beyond Istanbul and Edirne date from the 16th and 17th centuries. Building activity was particularly intense in the 16th century, even surpassing that of Anatolia, but it declined over the course of the 17th century.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=587-589}} [[Sarajevo]], [[Mostar]], [[Skopje]], [[Plovdiv]] and [[Thessaloniki]], were among the most important cities in the region and their Ottoman monuments often reflect a classical style.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=587-593}} As in many other provincial areas of the empire, mosques in the Balkans generally consisted of the single-dome type with one minaret, though some were also built with sloped wooden roofs instead.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=587}}

[[File:Khan_As'ad_Pasha_Panorama.jpg|thumb|The [[Khan As'ad Pasha]] in [[Damascus]] (1753) is an example of the Ottoman penchant for domed units being integrated into local Syrian building styles.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Degeorge |first=Gérard |title=Damascus |publisher=Flammarion |year=2004 |isbn=2080304569 |pages=192–198}}</ref>]]

In other regions which had been [[Islamized]] long before the Ottomans, local [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] traditions were not easily displaced and remained highly relevant in the construction of new buildings. In [[Egypt]] and the [[Syria (region)|Syrian region]], the [[Mamluk architecture|Mamluk architectural style]] that existed before the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|Ottoman conquest of 1516–1517]] was largely continued while incorporating elements and ideas of Ottoman architecture to varying degrees.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=584-585}}{{Sfn|Williams|2018|p=34}} The regions along the edges of Anatolia, Syria, and [[Mesopotamia]] (around southeastern Turkey today) also resisted assimilation to the culture of the Ottoman capital and continued to be strongly influenced by local styles. For example, [[Diyarbakır|Diyarbakir]], [[Van, Turkey|Van]], and [[Adana]] were important regional centers that retained or developed their own local architectural styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=572-579}} Further afield in North Africa, particularly in [[Ottoman Algeria]] and [[Ottoman Tunisia]], which were autonomous for much of the Ottoman era, the local [[Moorish architecture|western Islamic style]] was blended with Ottoman architecture in different ways.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780300218701 |location= |pages=214–243}}</ref> In [[Baghdad]], Ottoman-era mosques were built almost entirely according to local traditions.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=587}}

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* [[Architecture of Turkey]]

== NotesReferences ==

{{Notelist}}

==References==

{{Reflist|2}}

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* {{cite book|last1=Acun|first1=Hakkı|title=Osmanlı İmparatorluğu Saat Kuleleri|year=2011|location=Ankara|publisher=Atatürk Kültür Merkezi Yayınları|isbn=9789751623706}}

* {{Cite book|last=Atasoy|first=Nurhan|title=Harem|publisher=Bilkent Kültür Girişimi Publications|year=2011|isbn=9786055495060}}

* {{Cite book |last=Aslanapa |first=Oktay |url= |title=Turkish Art and Architecture |date= |publisher=Praeger Publ. |year=1971 |language=en}}

* {{Cite book |last=Bağcı |first=Serpil |title=Ottoman Civilization |publisher=Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Culture |year=2002 |isbn=9751730732 |editor-last=Inalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |location=Ankara |pages=737-759737–759 |language=en |chapter=Painted Decoration in Ottoman Architecture |editor-last2=Renda |editor-first2=Günsel}}

* {{Cite book|last1=Blair|first1=Sheila S.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-mhIgewDtNkC&pg=PP3|title=The Art and Architecture of Islam 1250-1800|last2=Bloom|first2=Jonathan M.|publisher=Yale University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780300064650}}

*{{Cite thesis |last=Boykov |first=Grigor |url=http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/handle/11693/15822 |title=Mastering the conquered space: resurrection of urban life in Ottoman upper Thrace (14th - 17th c) |publisher=İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University (PhD thesis) |year=2013 |hdl=11693/15822 |type=Thesis}}

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* {{Cite book |last1=Sumner-Boyd |first1=Hilary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2G6KDwAAQBAJ |title=Strolling Through Istanbul: The Classic Guide to the City |last2=Freely |first2=John |publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks |year=2010 |edition=Revised |isbn=978-0-85773-005-3 |language=en}}

*{{cite book|last1=Trankova|first1=Dimana|last2=Georgieff |first2= Anthony|last3=Matanov|first3= Hristo|title= A Guide to Ottoman Bulgaria |publisher=Vagabond Media|location=Sofia|date=2011 |isbn=9789549230673|url=http://www.vagabond.bg/ottomanbulgaria/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115040440/http://www.vagabond.bg/ottomanbulgaria/|archive-date=2011-11-15}}

*{{Cite book |last=Wharton |first=Alyson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SdSLDwAAQBAJ&q=ortakoy+mosque+style |title=The Architects of Ottoman Constantinople: The Balyan Family and the History of Ottoman Architecture |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-85773-813-4 |language=en}}

* {{cite journal |last1=Uludas |first1=Burcu Alarslan |first2=Fatos |last2=Adiloglu |title=Islamic Gardens with a Special Emphasis on the Ottoman Paradise Gardens: The Sense of Place between Imagery and Reality |journal=Online Journal of Communication and Media Technologies |date=24 October 2011 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=44–96 |url=https://www.ojcmt.net/download/islamic-gardens-with-a-special-emphasis-on-the-ottoman-paradise-gardensthe-sense-of-place-between.pdf |access-date=15 July 2019}}

*{{Cite book|last=Yerasimos|first=Stéphane|title=Constantinople: Istanbul's Historical Heritage|publisher=H.F.Ullmann|year=2012|isbn=9783848000531|edition=English|translator-last=Schreiber|translator-first=Sally M.|translator-last2=Hoffman|translator-first2=Uta|translator-last3=Loeffler|translator-first3=Ellen}}

==Further reading==

*{{cite conference |last= Canbulat |first= Ibrahim |title= The Ottoman House: Evaluation of Structure and Form |book-title= 4th International Conference on Structural Health Assessment of Timber Structures |pages= 83–94 |publisher= Yıldız Technical University |date= 2017 |location= Istanbul |url= https://www.academia.edu/34622384}}

*{{Cite book |last=Necipoğlu |first=Gülru |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofsinanarchit0000neci/ |title=The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2005 |isbn=9781861892539 |language=en}} (A revised edition of this book was also published by Reaktion Books in 2011.)

==External links==