Ovid: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{Short description|Roman poet (43 BC – AD 17/18 AD)}}

{{Other uses}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 20212024}}

{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] -->

| name = Ovid

| image = Ovid 18th century engraving (cropped).jpg

*| '''a.'''birth_name = Publius Ovidius Naso{{Note labelEfn|a|a|none}} The [[cognomen]] ''Naso'' means "the one with the [[:wikt:nasus#Latin|nose]]" (i.e. "Bignose"). Ovid habitually refers to himself by his nickname in his poetry because the Latin name ''Ovidius'' does not fit into [[Elegiac couplet|elegiac metre]].}}▼

| birth_name = Publius Ovidius Naso{{Ref label|a|a|none}}

| birth_date = 2120 March 43 BC<ref name=parised>< /ref>

| birth_place = [[Sulmona|Sulmo]], [[Italy (Ancient Rome)|Italy]], [[Roman Republic]]

| death_date = AD 17 or 18 (age 59–61)

| death_place = [[Constanța|Tomis]], [[Scythia Minor (Dobruja)|Scythia Minor]], [[Roman Empire]]

| occupation = Poet

| genre = [[Elegy]], [[Epic poetry|epic]], [[drama]]

| notable_works = ''[[Metamorphoses]]''

| caption = Anonymous 18th-century engraving<ref>{{Cite web |title=print {{!}} British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_1901-1022-1548 |access-date=2023-06-26 |website=[[The British Museum]] |language=en}}</ref>

}}

'''Publius Ovidius Naso''' ({{IPA-|la|ˈpuːbliʊs ɔˈwɪdiʊs ˈnaːso(ː)|lang}}; 2120 March 43 BC – AD 17/18), known in English as '''Ovid''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɒ|v|ɪ|d}} {{respell|OV|id}}),<ref>''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]'': "Ovid"</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ovid-Roman-poet | access-date=22 February 2024 | title=Ovid | first=Edward John | last=Kenney | series=Encyclopaedia Britannica}}</ref> was a [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Roman poet]] who lived during the reign of [[Augustus]]. He was a younger contemporary of [[Virgil]] and [[Horace]], with whom he is often ranked as one of the three [[Western canon|canonical]] poets of [[Latin literature]]. The [[Roman Empire|Imperial]] scholar [[Quintilian]] considered him the last of the Latin love [[wikt:elegistelegy|elegists]].<ref name="Quint. Inst. 10.1.93">Quint. ''Inst.'' 10.1.93</ref> Although Ovid enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime, the emperor Augustus [[Exile of Ovid|exiled him]] to [[Constanța|Tomis]], the capital of the newly-organised province of [[Moesia]], on the [[Black Sea]], where he remained for the last nine or ten years of his life. Ovid himself attributed his banishment to a "poem and a mistake", but his reluctance to disclose specifics has resulted in much speculation among scholars.

Today, Ovid is most famous for the ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', a continuous mythological narrative in fifteen books written in [[dactylic hexameter]]s. He is also known for works in [[elegiac couplet]]s such as {{Lang|la|[[Ars Amatoria]]}} ("The Art of Love") and ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]''. His poetry was much imitated during [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]], and greatly influenced [[Western art]] and [[Western literature|literature]]. The ''Metamorphoses'' remains one of the most important sources of [[classical mythology]] today.<ref name="Mark P.O. Morford 1999 p. 25">Mark P.O. Morford, Robert J. Lenardon, ''Classical Mythology'' ([[Oxford University Press]] US, 1999), p. 25. {{ISBN|0195143388|978-0195143386}}</ref>

==Life==

Ovid wrote more about his own life than most other Roman poets. Information about his biography is drawn primarily from his poetry, especially ''Tristia'' 4.10,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Conte |first=Gian Biagio |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJGp_dkXnuUC |title=Latin Literature: A History |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |year=1987 |pages=340|isbn=9780801862533 }}</ref> which gives a lengthy autobiographical account of his life. Other sources include [[Seneca the Elder]] and [[Quintilian]].

===Birth, early life, and marriage===

[[Image:Sulmona0001.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Statue of Ovid by [[Ettore Ferrari]] in the Piazza XX Settembre, [[Sulmona]], Italy]]

Ovid was born in the [[Paeligni]]an town of [[Sulmo]] (modern-day [[Sulmona]], in the [[province of L'Aquila]], [[Abruzzo]]), in an [[Apennine Mountains|Apennine]] valley east of [[Rome]], to an important [[Equestrian (Roman)|equestrian]] family, the [[Ovidia gens|''gens Ovidia'']], on 2120 March 43 BC – a significant year in Roman politics.{{RefEfn|It labelwas a pivotal year in the [[history of Rome]]. A year before Ovid's birth, the murder of [[Julius Caesar]] took place, an event that precipitated the end of the [[Republican Rome|brepublican]] regime. After Caesar's death, a series of civil wars and alliances followed (See [[Roman civil wars]]), until the victory of Caesar's nephew, Octavius (later called [[Augustus]]) over [[Mark Antony]] (leading supporter of Caesar), from which arose a new political order.<ref>{{in lang|bpt}} ''Met.'', Ovid, translation to [[Portuguese language|nonePortuguese]] by Paulo Farmhouse Alberto, Livros Cotovia, Intro, p. 11.</ref>}}<ref name=parised>{{cite book|title=Metamorphoseon|last=Ovid|editor=J. Juvencius & M.A. Amar|location=Paris|date=1800|quote=[Preface] P. Ovidius Naso A.D. XII Kalend. April [21 March] Sulmone in Pelignis natus est, quo anno ... P. Hirtius et C. Pansa Coss. [43&nbsp;BC]

}}</ref> Along with his brother, who excelled at oratory, Ovid was educated in rhetoric in Rome under the teachers [[Arellius Fuscus]] and [[Porcius Latro]].<ref>Seneca, ''Cont.'' 2.2.8 and 9.5.17</ref>

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Ovid's first recitation has been dated to around 25 BC, when he was eighteen.<ref>''Trist.'' 4.10.57–58</ref> He was part of the circle centered on the esteemed patron [[Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus]], and likewise seems to have been a friend of poets in the circle of [[Gaius Maecenas|Maecenas]]. In ''Tristia'' 4.10.41–54, Ovid mentions friendships with [[Aemilius Macer|Macer]], [[Sextus Propertius|Propertius]], [[Horace]], Ponticus and Bassus. (He only barely met Virgil and Tibullus, a fellow member of Messalla's circle, whose elegies he admired greatly).

He married three times and had divorced twice by the time he was thirty. He had one daughter and grandchildren through her.<ref name="HornblowerSpawforth2014">{{cite book|last1=Hornblower|first1=Simon|last2=Spawforth|first2=Antony|last3=Eidinow|first3=Esther|title=The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AIgdBAAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0198706779|page=562|access-date=27 December 2015|archive-date=23 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123103142/https://books.google.com/books?id=AIgdBAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> His last wife was connected in some way to the influential ''[[gens Fabia]]'' and helped him during his exile in Tomis (now [[Constanța]] in [[Romania]]).<ref>''Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World'' s.v. Ovid</ref>

===Literary success===

Ovid spent the first 25 years of his literary career primarily writing poetry in [[Elegiac|elegiac meter]] with erotic themes.<ref>The most recent chart that describes the dating of Ovid's works is in Knox. P. "A Poet's Life" in ''A Companion to Ovid'' ed. Peter Knox (Oxford, 2009) pp. xvii–xviii</ref> The chronology of these early works is not secure, but scholars have established tentative dates. His earliest extant work is thought to be the ''Heroides'', letters of mythological heroines to their absent lovers, which may have been published in 19 BC, although the date is uncertain as it depends on a notice in ''Am.'' 2.18.19–26 that seems to describe the collection as an early published work.<ref name="Trist. 4.10.53–4">''Trist.'' 4.10.53–54</ref>

The authenticity of some of these poems has been challenged, but this first edition probably contained the first 14 poems of the collection. The first five-book collection of the ''[[Amores (Ovid)|Amores]]'', a series of erotic poems addressed to a lover, Corinna, is thought to have been published in 16–15 BC; the surviving version, redacted to three books according to an epigram prefixed to the first book, is thought to have been published c. 8–3{{circa|8}}–3 BC. Between the publications of the two editions of the ''Amores'' can be dated the premiere of his tragedy ''Medea'', which was admired in antiquity but is no longer extant.

Ovid's next poem, the ''Medicamina Faciei'' (a fragmentary work on women's beauty treatments), preceded the {{Lang|la|[[Ars Amatoria]]}} (the ''Art of Love''), a parody of [[didactic poetry]] and a three-book manual about seduction and intrigue, which has been dated to AD 2 (Books 1–2 would go back to 1 BC<ref>{{cite book | last = Hornblower | first = Simon |author2=Antony Spawforth | title = Oxford Classical Dictionary | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1996 | page = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780198661726/page/1085 1085] | isbn = 978-0-19-866172-6 | url =https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780198661726| url-access = registration }}</ref>). Ovid may identify this work in his exile poetry as the ''carmen'', or song, which was one cause of his banishment. The {{Lang|la|Ars Amatoria}} was followed by the ''Remedia Amoris'' in the same year. This corpus of elegiac, erotic poetry earned Ovid a place among the chief Roman elegists Gallus, Tibullus, and Propertius, of whom he saw himself as the fourth member.<ref name="Trist. 4.10.53–4"/>

By AD 8 AD, Ovid had completed ''[[Metamorphoses]]'', his most ambitious work, a hexameter [[epic poem]] in 15 books., Herewhich hecomprehensively cataloguedcatalogs encyclopedicallythe transformationsmetamorphoses in Greek and Roman mythology, from the emergence of the cosmos to the [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|apotheosis]] of [[Julius Caesar]]. The stories follow each other in the telling of human beings transformed to new bodies: trees, rocks, animals, flowers, [[constellation]]s, etc. Simultaneously, he worked on the ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]'', a six-book poem in elegiac couplets on the theme of the calendar of [[Roman festivals]] and astronomy. The composition of this poem was interrupted by Ovid's exile,{{Ref labelEfn|c|c|none''Fasti'' is, in fact, unfinished. ''Metamorphoses'' was already completed in the year of exile, missing only the final revision.<ref>Carlos de Miguel Moura. ''O mistério do exílio ovidiano''. In Portuguese. In: ''Àgora. Estudos Clássicos em Debate 4'' (2002), pp. 99–117.</ref> In exile, Ovid said he never gave a final review on the poem.<ref>''Tristia'' 1, 7, 14.</ref>}} and it is thought that Ovid abandoned work on the piece in Tomis. It is probably in this period that the double letters (16–21) in the ''Heroides'' were composed, although there is some contention over their authorship.

===Exile to Tomis===

{{Main|Exile of Ovid}}

In AD 8, Ovid was banished to [[Constanța|Tomis]], on the [[Black Sea]], by the exclusive intervention of the Emperor [[Augustus]] without any participation of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] or of any [[Roman law|Roman judge]].<ref>See ''Trist''. II, 131–32.</ref> This event shaped all his following poetry. Ovid wrote that the reason for his exile was ''carmen et error'' – "a poem and a mistake",<ref>Ovid, ''Tristia'' 2.207</ref> claiming that his crime was worse than [[murder]],<ref>Ovid, ''Epistulae ex Ponto'' 2.9.72</ref> more harmful than poetry.<ref>Ovid, ''Epistulae ex Ponto'' 3.3.72</ref>

The Emperor's grandchildren, [[Julia the Younger]] and [[Agrippa Postumus]] (the latter adopted by him), were also banished around the same time. Julia's husband, [[Lucius Aemilius Paullus (consul 1)|Lucius Aemilius Paullus]], was put to death for a [[Conspiracy (political)|conspiracy]] against [[Augustus]], a conspiracy of which Ovid potentially knew.<ref>Norwood, Frances, "The Riddle of Ovid's Relegatio", ''Classical Philology'' (1963) p. 158</ref>

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[[Image:Turner Ovid Banished from Rome.jpg|thumb|280px| ''Ovid Banished from Rome'' (1838), by [[J. M. W. Turner|J.M.W. Turner]]]]

In exile, Ovid wrote two poetry collections, ''[[Tristia]]'' and ''[[Epistulae ex Ponto]]'', which illustrated his sadness and desolation. Being far from Rome, he had no access to libraries, and thus might have been forced to abandon his ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]'', a poem about the Roman calendar, of which only the first six books exist – January through June. He learned [[Scythian languages|Sarmatian and Getic]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bakay |first=Kornél |url=https://mek.oszk.hu/21600/21619/21619.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918144532/https://mek.oszk.hu/21600/21619/21619.pdf |archive-date=2021-09-18 September 2021 |url-status=live |title=Kik vagyunk? Honnan jöttünk? |publisher=Püski Kiadó |year=2004 |isbn=963-9906-45-X |page=13 |language=hu |trans-title=Who are we? Where did we come from?}}</ref>

The five books of the elegiac ''Tristia'', a series of poems expressing the poet's despair in exile and advocating his return to Rome, are dated to AD 9–12. The ''Ibis'', an elegiac curse poem attacking an unnamed adversary, may also be dated to this period. The ''[[Epistulae ex Ponto]]'', a series of letters to friends in Rome asking them to effect his return, are thought to be his last compositions, with the first three books published in AD 13 and the fourth book between AD 14 and 16. The exile poetry is particularly emotive and personal. In the ''Epistulae'' he claims friendship with the natives of Tomis (in the ''Tristia'' they are frightening barbarians) and to have written a poem in their language (''Ex Ponto'', 4.13.19–20).

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Yet he pined for Rome – and for his third wife, addressing many poems to her. Some are also to the Emperor Augustus, yet others are to himself, to friends in Rome, and sometimes to the poems themselves, expressing loneliness and hope of recall from banishment or exile.<ref>The first two lines of the ''Tristia'' communicate his misery: {{lang|la|Parve – nec invideo – sine me, liber, ibis in urbem; ei mihi, quod domino non licet ire tuo!}}: "Little book – for I don't begrudge it – go on to the city without me; Alas for me, because your master is not allowed to go with you!"</ref>

The obscure causes of Ovid's exile have given rise to endlessmuch explanationsspeculation fromby scholars. The medieval texts that mention the exile offer no credible explanations: their statements seem incorrect interpretations drawn from the works of Ovid.<ref>J. C. Thibault, ''The Mystery of Ovid's Exile'' (Berkeley-L. A. 1964), pp. 20–32.</ref> Ovid himself wrote many references to his offense, giving obscure or contradictory clues.<ref>About 33 mentions, according to Thibault (''Mystery'', pp. 27–31).</ref>

In 1923, scholar J. J. Hartman proposed a theory that is little considered among scholars of Latin civilization today: that Ovid was never exiled from Rome and that all of his exile works are the result of his fertile imagination. This theory was supported and rejected{{clarify|date=October 2013}} in the 1930s, especially by [[Netherlands|Dutch]] authors.<ref>A. W. J. Holleman, "Ovid's exile", ''Liverpool Classical Monthly'' 10.3 (1985), p. 48.<br />H. Hofmann, "The unreality of Ovid's Tomitan exile once again", ''Liverpool Classical Monthly'' 12.2 (1987), p. 23.</ref>

In 1985, a research paper by Fitton Brown advanced new arguments in support of Hartman's theory.<ref>A. D. F. Brown, "The unreality of Ovid's Tomitan exile", ''Liverpool Classical Monthly'' 10.2 (1985), pp. 18–22.</ref> Brown's article was followed by a series of supports and refutations in the short space of five years.<ref>Cf. the summary provided by A. Alvar Ezquerra, ''Exilio y elegía latina entre la Antigüedad y el Renacimiento'' (Huelva, 1997), pp. 23–24</ref> Among the supporting reasons Brown presents are: Ovid's exile is only mentioned by his own work, except in "dubious" passages by [[Pliny the Elder]]<ref>''Naturalis Historia'', 32.152: "His adiciemus ab Ovidio posita animalia, quae apud neminem alium reperiuntur, sed fortassis in Ponto nascentia, ubi id volumen supremis suis temporibus inchoavit".</ref> and [[Statius]],<ref>''Silvae'', 1.2, 254–55: "nec tristis in ipsis Naso Tomis".</ref> but no other author until the 4th century;<ref>Short references in Jerome (''Chronicon'', 2033, an. Tiberii 4, an. Dom. 17: "Ovidius poeta in exilio diem obiit et iuxta oppidum Tomos sepelitur") and in ''Epitome de Caesaribus'' (I, 24: "Nam [Augustus] poetam Ovidium, qui et Naso, pro eo, quod tres libellos amatoriae artis conscripsit, exilio damnavit").</ref> that the author of ''[[Heroides]]'' was able to separate the poetic "I" of his own and real life; and that information on the geography of Tomis was already known by [[Virgil]], by [[Herodotus]] and by Ovid himself in his ''[[Metamorphoses]]''.{{Ref labelEfn|d|d|noneOvid cites [[Scythia]] in I 64, II 224, V 649, VII 407, VIII 788, XV 285, 359, 460, and others.}}<ref>A. D. F. Brown, "The unreality of Ovid's Tomitan exile", ''Liverpool Classical Monthly'' 10.2 (1985), pp. 20–21.</ref>

Most scholars, however, oppose these hypotheses.<ref>J. M. Claassen, "Error and the imperial household: an angry god and the exiled Ovid's fate", ''Acta classica: proceedings of the Classical Association of South Africa'' 30 (1987), pp. 31–47.</ref> One of the main arguments of these scholars is that Ovid would not let his ''Fasti'' remain unfinished, mainly because this poem meant his consecration as an imperial poet.<ref>Although some authors such as Martin (P. M. Martin, "À propos de l'exil d'Ovide... et de la succession d'Auguste", ''Latomus'' 45 (1986), pp. 609–11.) and Porte (D. Porte, "Un épisode satirique des ''Fastes'' et l'exil d'Ovide", ''Latomus'' 43 (1984), pp. 284–306.) detected in a passage of the ''Fasti'' (2.371–80) an Ovidian attitude contrary to the wishes of [[Augustus]] to his succession, most researchers agree that this work is the clearest testimony of support of Augustan ideals by Ovid (E. Fantham, ''Ovid: Fasti. Book IV'' (Cambridge 1998), p. 42.)</ref>

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The ''Heroides'' markedly reveal the influence of rhetorical declamation and may derive from Ovid's interest in rhetorical ''[[suasoria]]e'', persuasive speeches, and ''[[ethopoeia]]'', the practice of speaking in another character. They also play with generic conventions; most of the letters seem to refer to works in which these characters were significant, such as the ''[[Aeneid]]'' in the case of Dido and [[Catullus]] 64 for Ariadne, and transfer characters from the genres of epic and tragedy to the elegiac genre of the ''Heroides''.<ref>Knox, P. pp. 18ff.</ref> The letters have been admired for their deep psychological portrayals of mythical characters, their rhetoric, and their unique attitude to the classical tradition of mythology.{{by whom|date=November 2015}} They also contribute significantly to conversations on how gender and identity were constructed in Augustan Rome.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lindheim |first1=Sara H. |title=Mail and Female: Epistolary Narrative and Desire in Ovid's Heroides |date=2003 |publisher=The University of Wisconsin Press}}</ref>

A popular quote from the Heroides anticipates Machiavelli's "the end justifies the means". Ovid had written "Exitus acta probat" -– the result justifies the means.

===''Amores'' ("The Loves")===

{{Main| Amores (Ovid)}}

The ''Amores'' is a collection in three books of love poetry in elegiac meter, following the conventions of the elegiac genre developed by [[Tibullus]] and [[Propertius]]. Elegy originates with Propertius and Tibullus, but Ovid is an innovator in the genre. Ovid changes the leader of his elegies from the poet, to Amor (Love or Cupid). This switch in focus from the triumphs of the poet, to the triumphs of love over people is the first of its kind for this genre of poetry. This Ovidian innovation can be summarized as the use of love as a metaphor for poetry.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Athanassaki|first1=Lucia|title=The Triumph of Love in Ovid's Amores 1, 2|journal=Materiali e Discussioni per l'Analisi dei Testi Classici|date=1992|volume=No. 28|issue=28|pages=125–41|doi=10.2307/40236002|jstor=40236002}}</ref> The books describe the many aspects of love and focus on the poet's relationship with a mistress called Corinna. Within the various poems, several describe events in the relationship, thus presenting the reader with some vignettes and a loose narrative.

Book 1 contains 15 poems. The first tells of Ovid's intention to write epic poetry, which is thwarted when [[Cupid]] steals a metrical foot from him, changing his work into love elegy.

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[[File:Ovidius Metamorphosis - George Sandy's 1632 edition.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Engraved frontispiece of [[George Sandys]]'s 1632 London edition of ''Ovid's Metamorphoses Englished'']]

{{Main| Metamorphoses}}

The ''Metamorphoses'', Ovid's most ambitious and well-known work, consists of a 15-book catalogue written in [[dactylic hexameter]] about transformations in Greek and Roman mythology set within a loose mytho-historical framework. The word "metamorphoses" is of Greek origin and means "transformations". Appropriately, the characters in this work undergo many different transformations. Within an extent of nearly 12,000 verses, almost 250 different myths are mentioned. Each myth is set outdoors where the mortals are often vulnerable to external influences. The poem stands in the tradition of mythological and etiological catalogue poetry such as [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Catalogue of Women]]'', [[Callimachus]]' ''[[Aetia (Callimachus)|Aetia]]'', [[Nicander]]'s ''Heteroeumena'', and [[Parthenius of Nicaea|Parthenius]]' ''Metamorphoses''.

The first book describes the formation of the world, the [[ages of man]], the [[Flood myth|flood]], the story of [[Daphne]]'s rape by Apollo and [[Io (mythology)|Io]]'s by Jupiter. The second book opens with [[Phaethon#Ovid|Phaethon]] and continues describing the love of Jupiter with [[Callisto (mythology)|Callisto]] and [[Europa (mythology)|Europa]]. The third book focuses on the mythology of [[Ancient Thebes (Boeotia)|Thebes]] with the stories of [[Cadmus]], [[Actaeon]], and [[Pentheus]]. The fourth book focuses on three pairs of lovers: [[Pyramus]] and [[Thisbe]], [[Salmacis]] and [[Hermaphroditus]], and [[Perseus]] and [[Andromeda (mythology)|Andromeda]]. The fifth book focuses on the song of the [[Muses]], which describes the rape of [[Proserpina]]. The sixth book is a collection of stories about the rivalry between gods and mortals, beginning with [[Arachne]] and ending with [[Philomela (princess of Athens)|Philomela]]. The seventh book focuses on [[Medea]], as well as [[Cephalus]] and [[Procris]]. The eighth book focuses on [[Daedalus]]' flight, the [[Calydonian boar]] hunt, and the contrast between pious [[Baucis and Philemon]] and the wicked [[Erysichthon of Thessaly|Erysichthon]]. The ninth book focuses on [[Heracles]] and the incestuous [[Byblis]]. The tenth book focuses on stories of doomed love, such as [[Orpheus]], who sings about [[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinthus]], as well as [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]], [[Myrrha]], and [[Adonis]]. The eleventh book compares the marriage of [[Peleus]] and [[Thetis]] with the love of [[Ceyx]] and [[Alcyone]]. The twelfth book moves from myth to history describing the exploits of [[Achilles]], the [[Lapith#Centauromachy|battle of the centaurs]], and [[Iphigeneia]]. The thirteenth book discusses the [[Achilles#Fate of Achilles' armour|contest over Achilles' arms]], and [[Polyphemus]]. The fourteenth moves to Italy, describing the journey of [[Aeneas]], [[Pomona (mythology)|Pomona]] and [[Vertumnus]], and [[Romulus]] and [[Hersilia]]. The final book opens with a philosophical lecture by [[Pythagoras]] and the deification of [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]. The end of the poem praises [[Augustus]] and expresses Ovid's belief that his poem has earned him immortality.

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==Spurious works==

{{for|a list|Pseudo-Ovid}}

===''Consolatio ad Liviam'' ("Consolation to Livia")===

The ''Consolatio'' is a long elegiac poem of consolation to [[Augustus]]' wife [[Livia]] on the death of her son [[Nero Claudius Drusus]]. The poem opens by advising Livia not to try to hide her sad emotions and contrasts Drusus' military virtue with his death. Drusus' funeral and the tributes of the imperial family are described as are his final moments and Livia's lament over the body, which is compared to birds. The laments of the city of Rome as it greets his funeral procession and the gods are mentioned, and Mars from his temple dissuades the Tiber river from quenching the pyre out of grief.<ref name="Knox, P 2009 pg.214">Knox, P. "Lost and Spurious Works" in Knox, P. (2009) p. 214</ref>

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Ovid is traditionally considered the final significant love elegist in the evolution of the genre and one of the most versatile in his handling of the genre's conventions. Like the other canonical elegiac poets Ovid takes on a [[Persona#In literature|persona]] in his works that emphasizes subjectivity and personal emotion over traditional militaristic and public goals, a convention that some scholars link to the relative stability provided by the Augustan settlement.<ref>Ettore Bignone, ''Historia de la literatura latina'' ([[Buenos Aires]]: Losada, 1952), p. 309.</ref><ref>A. Guillemin, "L'élement humain dans l'élégie latine". In: ''Revue des études Latines'' (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1940), p. 288.</ref> However, although [[Catullus]], [[Tibullus]] and [[Propertius]] may have been inspired in part by personal experience, the validity of "biographical" readings of these poets' works is a serious point of scholarly contention.<ref>In fact, it is generally accepted in most modern classical scholarship on elegy that the poems have little connection to autobiography or external reality. See Wycke, M. "Written Women:Propertius' Scripta Puella" in ''JRS'' 1987 and Davis, J. ''Fictus Adulter: Poet as Auctor in the Amores'' (Amsterdam, 1989) and Booth, J. "The ''Amores'': Ovid Making Love" in ''A Companion to Ovid'' (Oxford, 2009) pp. 70ff.</ref>

Ovid has been seen as taking on a persona in his poetry that is far more emotionally detached from his mistress and less involved in crafting a unique emotional realism within the text than the other elegists.<ref>Booth, J. pp. 66–68. She explains: "The text of the Amores hints at the narrator's lack of interest in depicting unique and personal emotion." p. 67</ref> This attitude, coupled with the lack of testimony that identifies Ovid's Corinna with a real person<ref>Apuleius ''Apology'' 10 provides the real names for every elegist's mistress except Ovid's.</ref> has led scholars to conclude that Corinna was never a real person – and that Ovid's relationship with her is an invention for his elegiac project.<ref>Barsby, J. ''Ovid Amores 1'' (Oxford, 1973) pp.16ff.</ref> Some scholars have even interpreted Corinna as a [[meta#EpistemologyMeta (prefix)|metapoetic]] symbol for the elegiac genre itself.<ref>Keith, A. "Corpus Eroticum: Elegiac Poetics and Elegiac Puellae in Ovid's 'Amores{{' "}} in ''Classical World'' (1994) 27–40.</ref>

Ovid has been considered a highly inventive love elegist who plays with traditional elegiac conventions and elaborates the themes of the genre;<ref>Barsby, p. 17.</ref> Quintilian even calls him a "sportive" elegist.<ref name="Quint. Inst. 10.1.93"/> In some poems, he uses traditional conventions in new ways, such as the ''[[paraklausithyron]]'' of ''Am.'' 1.6, while other poems seem to have no elegiac precedents and appear to be Ovid's own generic innovations, such as the poem on Corinna's ruined hair (''Am.'' 1.14). Ovid has been traditionally seen as far more sexually explicit in his poetry than the other elegists.<ref>Booth, J. p. 65</ref>

His erotic elegy covers a wide spectrum of themes and viewpoints; the ''Amores'' focus on Ovid's relationship with Corinna, the love of [[List of Greek mythological figures|mythical characters]] is the subject of the ''Heroides'', and the {{Lang|la|[[Ars Amatoria]]}} and the other didactic love poems provide a handbook for relationships and seduction from a (mock-)"scientific" viewpoint. In his treatment of elegy, scholars have traced the influence of rhetorical education in his [[enumeration]], in his effects of surprise, and in his transitional devices.<ref>Jean Bayet, ''Literatura latina'' ([[Barcelona]]: Ariel, 1985), p. 278 and Barsby, pp. 23ff.</ref>

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Some commentators have also noted the influence of Ovid's interest in love elegy in his other works, such as the ''Fasti,'' and have distinguished his "elegiac" style from his "epic" style. [[Richard Heinze]] in his famous ''Ovids elegische Erzählung'' (1919) delineated the distinction between Ovid's styles by comparing the ''Fasti'' and ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' versions of the same legends, such as the treatment of the [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]]–[[Proserpina]] story in both poems. Heinze demonstrated that, "whereas in the elegiac poems a sentimental and tender tone prevails, the hexameter narrative is characterized by an emphasis on solemnity and awe..."<ref>Quoted by Theodore F. Brunner, "Deinon vs. eleeinon: Heinze Revisited" In: ''The American Journal of Philology'', Vol. 92, No. 2 (Apr. 1971), pp. 275–84.</ref> His general line of argument has been accepted by [[Brooks Otis]], who wrote:

{{quoteblockquote|The [[List of Roman deities|gods]] are "serious" in epic as they are not in elegy; the speeches in epic are long and infrequent compared to the short, truncated and frequent speeches of elegy; the epic writer conceals himself while the elegiac fills his narrative with familiar remarks to the reader or his characters; above all perhaps, epic narrative is continuous and symmetrical... whereas elegiac narrative displays a marked asymmetry&nbsp;...<ref>[[Brooks Otis]], ''Ovid as an epic poet'' (CUP Archive, 1970), p. 24. {{ISBN|0521076153|978-0521076159}}</ref>}}

Otis wrote that in the Ovidian poems of love, he "was [[Burlesque|burlesquing]] an old theme rather than inventing a new one".<ref name="OtisI">[[Brooks Otis]], ''Ovid as an epic poet'', p. 264.</ref> Otis states that the ''Heroides'' are more serious and, though some of them are "quite different from anything Ovid had done before [...] he is here also treading a very well-worn path" to relate that the motif of females abandoned by or separated from their men was a "stock motif of [[Hellenistic]] and [[neoteric]] poetry (the classic example for us is, of course, [[Catullus 66]])".<ref name="OtisI" />

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it will be more so, if only my feet travel the road they've started.

But you're in too much of a hurry: if I live you'll be more than sorry:

many poems, in fact, are forming in my mind.<ref>Ov. ''Rem''. VI, 33–36389-392. Translated by A. S. Kline and available in [http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/CuresforLove.htm Ovid: Cures for Love] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123103155/https://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Latin/CuresforLove.php |date=23 January 2023 }} (2001).</ref>

</poem>

After such criticism subsided, Ovid became one of the best known and most loved Roman poets during the [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]].<ref name="PeterXIII">See chapters II and IV in P. Gatti, Ovid in Antike und Mittelalter. Geschichte der philologischen Rezeption, Stuttgart 2014, {{ISBN|978-3515103756}}; Peter Green (trad.), ''The poems of exile: Tristia and the Black Sea letters'' ([[University of California Press]], 2005), p. xiii. {{ISBN|0520242602|978-0520242609}}</ref>

Writers in the Middle Ages used his work as a way to read and write about [[sex]] and [[violence]] without orthodox "scrutiny routinely given to commentaries on the [[Bible]]".<ref>Robert Levine, "Exploiting Ovid: Medieval Allegorizations of the Metamorphoses", ''Medioevo Romanzo'' XIV (1989), pp. 197–213.</ref> In the Middle Ages the voluminous ''[[:fr:L'Ovide moralisé|Ovide moralisé]]'', a French work that moralizes 15 books of the ''Metamorphoses'' was composed. This work then influenced [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]]. Ovid's poetry provided inspiration for the Renaissance idea of [[Renaissance humanism|humanism]], and more specifically, for many Renaissance painters and writers.

Likewise, [[Arthur Golding]] moralized his own translation of the full 15 books, and published it in 1567. This version was the same version used as a supplement to the original Latin in the Tudor-era grammar schools that influenced such major Renaissance authors as [[Christopher Marlowe]] and [[William Shakespeare]]. Many non-English authors were heavily influenced by Ovid's works as well. [[Michel de Montaigne|Montaigne]], for example, alluded to Ovid several times in his ''[[Essais]]'', specifically in his comments on ''Education of Children'' when he says:

{{quoteblockquote|The first taste I had for books came to me from my pleasure in the fables of the ''Metamorphoses'' of Ovid. For at about seven or eight years of age I would steal away from any other pleasure to read them, inasmuch as this language was my mother tongue, and it was the easiest book I knew and the best suited by its content to my tender age.<ref>[[Michel de Montaigne]], ''The complete essays of Montaigne'' (translated by Donald M. Frame), [[Stanford University Press]] 1958, p. 130. {{ISBN|0804704864|978-0804704861}}</ref>}} [[Miguel de Cervantes]] also used the ''Metamorphoses'' as a platform of inspiration for his prodigious novel ''[[Don Quixote]].'' Ovid is both praised and criticized by Cervantes in his ''Don Quixote'', where he warns against satires that can exile poets, as happened to Ovid.<ref>Frederick A. De Armas, ''Ovid in the Age of Cervantes'' (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2010), pp. 11–12.</ref>

[[File:Eugène Delacroix - Ovide chez les Scythes (1859).jpg|thumb|280px|[[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]], ''[[Ovid among the Scythians]]'', 1859. [[National Gallery (London)]].]]

In the 16th century, some [[Jesuit]] schools of [[Portugal]] cut several passages from Ovid's ''Metamorphoses''. While the Jesuits saw his poems as elegant compositions worthy of being presented to students for educational purposes, they also felt his works as a whole might corrupt students.<ref>Agostinho de Jesus Domingues, ''Os Clássicos Latinos nas Antologias Escolares dos Jesuítas nos Primeiros Ciclos de Estudos Pré-Elementares No Século XVI em Portugal'' (Faculdade de Letras da [[Universidade do Porto]], 2002), [[Porto]], pp. 16–17.</ref> The Jesuits took much of their knowledge of Ovid to the Portuguese colonies. According to {{interlanguage link|Serafim Leite|pt}} (1949), the ''[[ratio studiorum]]'' was in effect in [[Colonial Brazil]] during the early 17th century, and in this period Brazilian students read works like the ''[[Epistulae ex Ponto]]'' to learn [[Latin]] [[grammar]].<ref>Serafim da Silva Leite, ''História da Companhia de Jesus no Brasil''. [[Rio de Janeiro]], Instituto Nacional do Livro, 1949, pp. 151–52 – Tomo VII.</ref>

In the 16th century, Ovid's works were criticized in England. The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]] and the [[Bishop of London]] ordered that a contemporary translation of Ovid's love poems be [[Bishops' Ban of 1599|publicly burned in 1599]]. The [[Puritan]]s of the following century viewed Ovid as a [[pagan]], thus as an [[immoral]] influence.<ref>Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'', Alan H. F. Griffin, ''Greece & Rome'', Second Series, Vol. 24, No. 1 (Apr. 1977), pp. 57–70. Cambridge University Press.</ref> [[John Dryden]] composed a famous translation of the ''Metamorphoses'' into stopped rhyming couplets during the 17th century, when Ovid was "refashioned [...] in its own image, one kind of Augustanism making over another".<ref name="PeterXIII" />

The [[Romantic movement]] of the 19th century, in contrast, considered Ovid and his poems "stuffy, dull, over-formalized and lacking in genuine passion".<ref name="PeterXIII" /> Romantics might have preferred his poetry of exile.<ref>Peter Green (trad.), ''The poems of exile: Tristia and the Black Sea letters'' (University of California Press, 2005), p. xiv. {{ISBN|0520242602|978-0520242609}}</ref> The picture ''[[Ovid among the Scythians]]'', painted by [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]], portrays the last years of the poet in exile in [[Scythia]], and was seen by [[Baudelaire]], [[Théophile Gautier|Gautier]] and [[Edgar Degas]].<ref>"Recent Acquisitions, A Selection: 2007–2008", in [[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] ''Bulletin'', v. 66, no. 2 (Fall, 2008).</ref> Baudelaire took the opportunity to write a long [[essay]] about the life of an exiled poet like Ovid.<ref>Timothy Bell Raser, ''The simplest of signs: Victor Hugo and the language of images in France'', 1850–1950 (University of Delaware Press, 2004), p. 127. {{ISBN|0874138671|978-0874138672}}</ref> This shows that the exile of Ovid had some influence in 19th century [[Romanticism]] since it makes connections with its key concepts such as [[wildness]] and the [[Genius|misunderstood genius]].<ref>Matt Cartmill, ''A View to a Death in the Morning: Hunting and Nature Through History'', Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 118–19. {{ISBN|0674937368}}</ref>

The exile poems were once viewed unfavorably in Ovid's oeuvre.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/poemsofexiletris00ovid|url-access=registration|title=The Poems of Exile: Tristia and the Black Sea Letters|page=xxxvi|author=Ovid|translator-last=Green|translator-first=Peter|publisher=University of California Press|date=2005|isbn=978-0520931374}}</ref> They have enjoyed a resurgence of scholarly interest in recent years, though critical opinion remains divided on several qualities of the poems, such as their intended audience and whether Ovid was sincere in the "recantation of all that he stood for before".<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ycvUAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|title=Ovid Revisited: The Poet in Exile|page=2|last=Claassen|first=Jo-Marie|publisher=A&C Black|date=2013|isbn=978-1472521439|access-date=14 March 2017|archive-date=23 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123103144/https://books.google.com/books?id=ycvUAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2|url-status=live}}</ref>

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====Literary and artistic====

[[File:Publius Ovidius Naso in the Nuremberg chronicle XCIIIv.jpg|thumb|right|Ovid as imagined in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'', 1493]]

* (c. 800–810{{circa|800}}–810) [[Moduin]], a poet in the court circle of [[Charlemagne]], who adopts the pen name Naso.

* (12th century) The [[troubadour]]s and the medieval [[courtoise literature]]. In particular, the passage describing the Holy Grail in the ''Conte du Graal'' by [[Chrétien de Troyes]] contains elements from the ''[[Metamorphoses (Ovid)|Metamorphoses]]''.<ref name="Peron, Goulven 2016, p. 113">Peron, Goulven. L'influence des Metamorphoses d'Ovide sur la visite de Perceval au chateau du Roi Pecheur, Journal of the International Arthurian Society, Vol. 4, Issue 1, 2016, pp. 113–34.</ref>

* (13th century) The ''[[Roman de la Rose]]'', [[Dante Alighieri]]

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* (15th century) [[Sandro Botticelli]]

* (16th century–17th century) [[Luís de Camões]], [[Christopher Marlowe]], [[William Shakespeare]], [[John Marston (playwright)|John Marston]], [[Thomas Edwards (poet)|Thomas Edwards]]

* (17th century) [[John Milton]], [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], [[Miguel de Cervantes]]'s ''[[Don Quixote]]'', 1605 and 1615, [[Luis de Góngora]]'s ''[[La Fábula de Polifemo y Galatea]]'', 1613, Landscape with Pyramus and Thisbe by [[Nicolas Poussin]], 1651, Stormy Landscape with Philemon and Baucis by [[Peter Paul Rubens]], c. {{circa|1620}}, "Divine Narcissus" by Sor [[Juana Inés de la Cruz]] c. {{circa|1689}}.<ref>Tavard, George H. Juana Ines de la Cruz and the Theology of Beauty: The First Mexican theology, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, IN, 1991, pp. 104–05</ref>

* (1820s) During his [[Odessa]] exile, [[Alexander Pushkin]] compared himself to Ovid; memorably versified in the [[epistle]] ''To Ovid'' (1821). The exiled Ovid also features in his long poem ''[[The Gypsies (poem)|Gypsies]]'', set in [[Moldavia]] (1824), and in Canto VIII of ''[[Eugene Onegin]]'' (1825–1832).

* (1916) [[James Joyce]]'s ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' has a quotation from Book 8 of ''Metamorphoses'' and introduces [[Stephen Dedalus]]. The Ovidian reference to "Daedalus" was in ''[[Stephen Hero]]'', but then metamorphosed to "Dedalus" in ''A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' and in ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]''.

* (1920s) The title of the second poetry collection by [[Osip Mandelstam]], ''Tristia'' (Berlin, 1922), refers to Ovid's book. Mandelstam's collection is about his hungry, violent years immediately after the [[October Revolution]].

* (1951) ''[[Six Metamorphoses after Ovid]]'' by [[Benjamin Britten]], for solo [[oboe]], evokes images of Ovid's characters from ''Metamorphoses''.

* (1960) ''[[God Was Born in Exile]]'', the novel by the Romanian writer [[Vintila Horia]] about Ovid's stay in exile (the novel received the [[Prix Goncourt]] in 1960).

* (1961) The eight-line poem "[[Ovid in the Third Reich]]" by [[Geoffrey Hill]] transposes Ovid to [[Nazi Germany|National Socialist Germany]].

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* (2013) Mikhail Berman-Tsikinovsky's "To Ovid, 2000 years later, (A Road Tale)" describes the author's visits to the places of Ovid's birth and death.

* (2015) In ''[[The Walking Dead (season 6)|The Walking Dead]]'' season 5, episode 5 ("Now"), Deanna begins making a long-term plan to make her besieged community sustainable and writes on her blueprint a Latin phrase attributed to Ovid: "''Dolor hic tibi proderit olim''".<ref>{{cite web|author=Ovid|url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/ovid/lboo/lboo53.htm|website=Sacred Texts|title=Elegy XI: Weary at Length of His Mistress' Infidelities, He Swears that He Will Love Her No Longer|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-date=13 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113083922/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/ovid/lboo/lboo53.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The phrase is an excerpt from the longer phrase, "''Perfer et obdura, dolor hic tibi proderit olim''" (English translation: Be patient and tough; someday this pain will be useful to you").<ref>{{cite news|title=5 Things You Might Have Missed in The Walking Dead 'Now'|author=Faherty, Allanah Faherty|date=9 November 2015|work=MoviePilot|url=http://moviepilot.com/posts/3634276|access-date=14 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117031658/http://moviepilot.com/posts/3634276|archive-date=17 November 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

* (2017) "[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSgGgb7y-F8 ...and while there he sighs]" for 31-tone organ and mezzosoprano by composer [[Fabio Costa (composer, conductor)|Fabio Costa]] is based on the Syrinx and Pan scene from Metamorphoses, with performances in Amsterdam (2017, 2019).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Huygens-Fokker Foundation {{!}} concert Fokker organ {{!}} January 13, January 2019 |url=https://www.huygens-fokker.org/activities/concerts/2019-01-13.html |access-date=2023-02-19 February 2023 |website=www.huygens-fokker.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Huygens-Fokker Foundation {{!}} concert Fokker organ {{!}} April 23, April 2017 |url=https://www.huygens-fokker.org/activities/concerts/2017-04-23.html |access-date=2023-02-19 February 2023 |website=www.huygens-fokker.org}}</ref>

* (2017) Canadian composer [[Marc Sabat]] and German poet [[Uljana Wolf]] collaborated on a free homophonic translation of the first 88 lines of Ovid's ''Metamorphoseon'' to create the cantata ''Seeds of skies, alibis'' premiered by the vocal ensemble Ekmeles in New York on 22 February 2018.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UWXgdJshN28| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211030/UWXgdJshN28| archive-date=2021-10-30 October 2021|title = Seeds of skies, alibis| website=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

[[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] twice mentions him in:

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* (1609) ''[[The Wisdom of the Ancients]]'', a retelling and interpretation of Ovidian fables by [[Francis Bacon]]

* (1767) ''[[Apollo et Hyacinthus]]'', an early opera by [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]

* (1916) ''Ovid's Metamorphoses Vols 1-21–2'' translation by Frank Justus Miller

* (1926) ''[[Orpheus (play)|Orphée]]'', a play by [[Jean Cocteau]], retelling of the [[Orpheus]] myth from the [[metamorphoses (poem)|''Metamorphoses'']]

* (1938) ''[[Daphne (opera)|Daphne]]'', an opera by [[Richard Strauss]]

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==Notes==

{{RefbeginNotelist}}

▲* '''a.''' {{Note label|a|a|none}} The [[cognomen]] ''Naso'' means "the one with the [[:wikt:nasus#Latin|nose]]" (i.e. "Bignose"). Ovid habitually refers to himself by his nickname in his poetry because the Latin name ''Ovidius'' does not fit into [[Elegiac couplet|elegiac metre]].

* '''b.''' {{Note label|b|b|none}} It was a pivotal year in the [[history of Rome]]. A year before Ovid's birth, the murder of [[Julius Caesar]] took place, an event that precipitated the end of the [[Republican Rome|republican]] regime. After Caesar's death, a series of civil wars and alliances followed (See [[Roman civil wars]]), until the victory of Caesar's nephew, Octavius (later called [[Augustus]]) over [[Mark Antony]] (leading supporter of Caesar), from which arose a new political order.<ref>{{in lang|pt}} ''Met.'', Ovid, translation to [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] by Paulo Farmhouse Alberto, Livros Cotovia, Intro, p. 11.</ref>

* '''c.''' {{Note label|c|c|none}} ''Fasti'' is, in fact, unfinished. ''Metamorphoses'' was already completed in the year of exile, missing only the final revision.<ref>Carlos de Miguel Moura. ''O mistério do exílio ovidiano''. In Portuguese. In: ''Àgora. Estudos Clássicos em Debate 4'' (2002), pp. 99–117.</ref> In exile, Ovid said he never gave a final review on the poem.<ref>''Tristia'' 1, 7, 14.</ref>

* '''d.''' {{Note label|d|d|none}} Ovid cites [[Scythia]] in I 64, II 224, V 649, VII 407, VIII 788, XV 285, 359, 460, and others.

{{Refend}}

==References==

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* Fornaro, P. (ed.), ''Publio Ovidio Nasone, Heroides'' (Alessandria: Edizioni del'Orso, 1999)

* Alton, E.H.; Wormell, D.E.W.; Courtney, E. (eds.), ''P. Ovidi Nasonis Fastorum libri sex'' (Stuttgart & Leipzig: Teubner, 1997⁴) (Bibliotheca Teubneriana).

* [[Elaine Fantham|Fantham, Elaine]]. ''Fasti. Book IV.'' Cambridge Greek and Latin Classics. (Cambridge University Press, 1998).

* Wiseman, Anne and Peter Wiseman ''Ovid: Fasti''. (Oxford University Press, 2013).

* Goold, G.P., ''et alii'' (eds.), ''Ovid, Heroides, Amores; Art of Love, Cosmetics, Remedies for Love, Ibis, Walnut-tree, Sea Fishing, Consolation; Metamorphoses; Fasti; Tristia, Ex Ponto'', Vol. I-VI, (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: HUP, 1977–1989, revised ed.) (Loeb Classical Library)

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|doi=10.11647/OBP.0067

|isbn=978-1-78374-162-5

|url= http://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/348/ovid--amores--book-1-
|doi-access=free
}} A '''free''' textbook for download.

* [[Brewer, Wilmon]], ''Ovid's Metamorphoses in European Culture (Commentary),'' Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, NH, Revised Edition 1978

* More, Brookes, ''Ovid's Metamorphoses (Translation in Blank Verse),'' Marshall Jones Company, Francestown, NH, Revised Edition 1978

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* {{cite book |last1=Sciaramenti |first1=Benedetta |title=Metamorfosi e corpo: poesia ovidiana e arti figurative |date=2023 |publisher=Giorgio Bretschneider Editore |location=Rome |isbn=9788876893438}}

* P. J. Davis, ''Ovid & [[Augustus]]: A political reading of Ovid's erotic poems''. London: Duckworth, 2006. p.&nbsp;183.

* Lee Fratantuono, ''Madness Transformed: A Reading of Ovid's Metamorphoses''. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books, 2011.

* Peter E. Knox (ed.), ''Oxford Readings in Ovid''. Oxford: [[Oxford University Press]], 2006. p.&nbsp;541.

* Andreas N. Michalopoulos, ''Ovid Heroides 16 and 17''. Introduction, text and commentary. (ARCA: Classical and Medieval Texts, Papers and Monographs, 47). Cambridge: Francis Cairns, 2006. pp. x, 409.

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|viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

* [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/latin/ovid/notes.html University of Virginia, "Ovid Illustrated: The Renaissance Reception of Ovid in Image and Text"]

* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/ovid}}

* {{Gutenberg author |id=2868}}

* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Ovid}}

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* [http://dcc.dickinson.edu/ovid-amores/preface Dickinson College Commentaries: ''Amores Book 1'']

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170131162913/https://edsitement.neh.gov/curriculum-unit/ovids-metamorphoses-common-core-exemplar Ovid's "Metamorphoses": A Common Core Exemplar]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120215055813/http://www.rhapsodes.fll.vt.edu/metamorphoses08.htm SORGLL: Ovid, Metamorphoses VIII, 183–235, (Daedalus & Icarus); read by Stephen Daitz]

===Latin and English translation===

* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Perseus:collection:Greco-Roman&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Ovidius Perseus/Tufts: P. Ovidius Naso] ''Amores'', ''Ars Amatoria'', ''Heroides'' (on this site called ''Epistulae''), ''Metamorphoses'', ''Remedia Amoris''. Enhanced brower. Not downloadable.

* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/ovid Sacred Texts Archive: Ovid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022220609/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/ovid/ |date=22 October 2012 }} ''Amores'', ''Ars Amatoria'', ''Medicamina Faciei Femineae'', ''Metamorphoses'', ''Remedia Amoris''.

* [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PA6519xM3xB8/ The Metamorphoses of Publius Ovidius Naso] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070722000211/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PA6519xM3xB8/ |date=22 July 2007 }}; elucidated by an analysis and explanation of the fables, together with English notes, historical, mythological and critical, and illustrated by pictorial embellishments: with a dictionary, giving the meaning of all the words with critical exactness. By [[Nathan Covington Brooks]]. Publisher: New York, [[A. S. Barnes]] & co.; Cincinnati, H. W. Derby & co., 1857 ''(a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; [[DjVu]] & [http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PA6519xM3xB8/1f/metamorphoses_of_ovid.pdf layered PDF] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060305180551/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/PA6519xM3xB8/1f/metamorphoses_of_ovid.pdf |date=5 March 2006 }} format)''

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* [http://www.tonykline.co.uk New translations] by [[A. S. Kline]] ''Amores'', ''Ars Amatoria'', ''Epistulae ex Ponto'', ''Fasti'', ''Heroides'', ''Ibis'', ''Medicamina Faciei Femineae'', ''Metamorphoses'', ''Remedia Amoris'', ''Tristia'' with enhanced browsing facility, downloadable in HTML, PDF, or MS Word DOC formats. Site also includes wide selection of works by other authors.

* [https://archive.today/20121208175849/http://www.fieralingue.it/modules/poetsonpoets/corner.php?pa=printpage&pid=13 Two translations from Ovid's ''Amores'' by Jon Corelis.]

* [http://sites.google.com/site/romanelegy/ovid English translations of Ovid's ''Amores'' with introductory essay and notes by Jon Corelis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309052035/https://sites.google.com/site/romanelegy/ovid |date=9 March 2020 }}

* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0061;layout=;loc=1.1;query=toc Perseus/Tufts: Commentary on the ''Heroides'' of Ovid]