Pashto grammar: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia
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{{short description|Grammar of the Pashto language}}
{{Pashto language sidebar}}
[[Pashto language|Pashto]]{{ref|b}} is aan [[subject–object–verb|S-O-V]] language with [[split ergativity]]. [[Adjective]]s come before [[noun]]s. Nouns and adjectives are inflected for [[Grammatical gender|gender]] (masc./fem.), [[Grammatical number|number]] (sing./plur.), and [[Grammatical case|case]] (direct, oblique, ablative and vocative). The [[verb]] system is very intricate with the following tenses: Present; simple past; past progressive; present perfect; and past perfect. In any of the past tenses (simple past, past progressive, present perfect, past perfect), Pashto is an [[Ergative–absolutive language|ergative language]]; i.e., transitive verbs in any of the past tenses agree with the object of the sentence. The dialects show some non-standard grammatical features, some of which are archaisms or descendants of old forms that are discarded by the literary language.
In the following article stress is represented by the following markers over vowels: '''ә́''', '''á''', '''ā́''', '''ú''', '''ó''', '''í''' and '''é'''.
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==== Indefinite ====
* In order to distinguish sentences with indefinites from questions, یو /yaw/ ‘one’'one' may be added, to yield یو څوک /yaw ʦok/ ‘someone’'someone' and یو څه /yaw ʦə/ ‘something’'something'.
* When هر /har, ar/ ‘every’'every' precedes the indefinite pronouns, the combination can mean everyone [هر څوک], everything [هر څه], each one [هر یو]
==Nouns==
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|څانډو
tsānḍú
|husband of a wife’swife's sister
|
|
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|}
Pashto has no definite article. But when necessary, definiteness may be indicated by other means such as [[demonstrative]]s. Likewise, it may be contraindicated by use of the word for "one", يو; as in "يو روغتون" -– "a hospital".
=== Class 1 ===
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! !!'''Singular'''!!'''Plural'''
|-
|'''[[Direct case|Direct]]''' || rowspan="2" | پلار<br />plār|| پلارانپلرونه <br />plārā́nplərunə
|-
|'''[[Oblique case|Oblique]]''' || rowspan="3" | پلارانوپلرونو<br />plārā́nopləruno
|-
|'''[[Ablative case|Ablative]]''' || rowspan="2" | پلاره
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|}
</div>
==== Feminine nouns ====
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In Southern Pashto, the final -e is pronounced -i when unstressed. For example, the plural of سترګه ''stә́rga'' "eye" and لار ''lār'' "way" would be سترګې ''stә́rge'' and لارې ''lā́re'' in the North, but سترګي ''stә́rgi'' and لاري ''lā́ri'' in the South, while مڼه ''maṇá'' "apple" and تخته ''taxtá'' "board" would be مڼې ''maṇé'' and تختې ''taxté'' in both dialect groups.
There are also feminine nouns ending in other vowels, particularly -e (they take یانې ''-yā́ne'' in the plural) and -ā or -o (thaythey take either ګانې ''-gā́ne'' or وې ''-we''). In Southern Pashto they are یاني ''-yā́ni'', ګاني ''-gā́ni'' and وي ''-wi'' (the last one is not as common as in Northern Pashto and is mostly restricted to a few nouns).
<div style=display:inline-table>
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Nouns with -ú- or -ó- in the last syllable change them to -ā-. Some nouns like تنور ''tanúr'' "oven" belong to the mixed conjugation, they form their oblique forms as Class 2 nouns, but their plurals are derived according to Class 1 pattern (but the -ú/ó- may be reduced to -a- in Southern dialects or -ə- in Northern dialects). The word پالېز ''paléz'' "kitchen garden" is often cited as an example of a noun that belongs to class 2, but doesn't undergo any stem changes.<ref name=":6"/>
There are some animate masculine nouns ending in -á (مېلمه ''melma'' "guest", اسبه ''asba'' "(horse) shepherd", غوبه ''ğoba'' "(cow) shepherd", کوربه ''korba'' "owner of the house" etc.), they also belong to Class 2.
Monosyllabic nouns with -a- lose it and take -ə in the oblique and plural forms. There several exceptions here: غر ''ğar'' "mountain", ور ''war'' "door", ګز ''gaz'' "gaz (unit of length)", من ''man'' "man (unit of weight)", ټغر ''ṭağar'' "rug" take ونه ''-úna'' in the plural form (غرونه ''ğrúna'', ورونه ''warúna''/''wrúna'' etc).
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|'''[[Oblique case|Oblique]]'''
|āCə́
| rowspan="3" |āCoaCó
|-
|'''[[Ablative case|Ablative]]'''
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|'''[[Vocative case|Vocative]]'''
|}
</div>
=== Class 3 ===
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Masculine -áy (note the stress) nouns, especially if animate, sometimes have alternative plurals in -yā́n. Its usage is somewhat dialect-dependent, they aren't as common in Southern Pashto.
Among feminine -əy nouns, even inanimate ones can take یانې or ګانې, they also can stay unchanged in the plural. Some abstract nouns suffixed with ي -i (such as دوستي "friendship", چلاکي "trickiness", ګرمي "heatness" etc.) also belong here.
<div style=display:inline-table>
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'''Feminine'''
Examples include اوړه [oṛә́ -– flour], اوبه [obә́ -water], پۍ [pə́i -– milk] etc.
Example: اوبه -– water
{| class="wikitable"
!
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|'''[[Oblique case|Oblique]]'''
| colspan="2" rowspan="3" style="text-align:center; |اوبو
obó
obә́
|-
|'''[[Ablative case|Ablative]]'''
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|}
Example: پۍ -– watermilk
{| class="wikitable"
!
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'''Masculine'''
Examples include: ږدن [ẓ̌dәn -sorghum], دال [dāl -lentils], شراب [šarā́b -– alcohol]
Example: دال -– lentils
{| class="wikitable"
!
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These are limited to nouns denoting kinship.
'''Feminine -– "or" stem'''
These include:
مور /mor/ ‘mother’'mother'; plural stem /máynd-/
خور /xor/ ‘sister’'sister'; plural stem /xwáynd-/
ترور /tror/ ‘paternal'paternal aunt’aunt'; plural stem /tráynd-/
نګور /ngor/ ‘daughter'daughter-in-law’law'; plural stem /ngáynd-/
Example:
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An adjective is called stāynúm in Pashto [ستاينوم]. The adjectives or stāynumúna agree with the nouns they modify in gender, number, and case.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="3" rowspan="2" |
!Class 1
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Class I adjectives are consonant-final in their citation form and keep the stress on the final syllable of the stem.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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=====Vowel harmony=====
Class I adjectives with the stressed stem vowel /ə́/ (Southern), such as دنګ /dəng/ ‘tall’'tall', undergo regressive harmony in the feminine direct plural and in both oblique plural forms—when the suffix vowel is /o/.
=====Centralization=====
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====Class I forms with stem allomorphy====
'''Example 1 = سپک (light -– ''in'' ''weight'') '''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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! Vocative
|}
The paradigm for the adjective سپک /spək/ ‘light’'light' in above shows the Southern dialect's Vowel harmony rule.
'''Example 2 = زړور (brave) '''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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| rowspan="3"|زړورو<br/>zṛawár{{IPAlink|o}}<br/>zṛawə́r{{IPAlink|o}} (''Southern'')
| rowspan="3"|زړورې<br/>zṛawár{{IPAlink|e}}<br/>زړوري<br/>zṛawə́r{{IPAlink|i}} (''Southern'')
| rowspan="3"|زړورو<br/>zṛawár{{IPAlink|o}}<br/>zṛawə́r{{IPAlink|o}} (''SothernSouthern'')
|-
! Ablative
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====Case-marking suffixes====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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| rowspan="2" style="border-right: none;" |ه
–
-
|-
! Vocative
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Examole: Vowel-final adjectives that end in stressed ۀ /‑ə́/
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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|}
Vowel-final adjectives that end stressed ه /‑ə́/ in their citation form include تېره /terə/́ ‘sharp’'sharp'. These can be reliably identified from this citation form as belonging to Class 2; no other class has adjectives ending in /-ə́/. The final stem-vowel of these adjectives undergoes one or other of the morphophonemic rules of Syncope I.
=====Back vowel lowering=====
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Inmost Class 2 consonant-final adjectives with non-initial back vowels, و /o/, /u/ lowers to /a/ when unstressed.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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|}
In most consonant-final adjectives where the stem vowel is a back vowel, و /o/, /u/, it will undergo vowel lowering in unstressed position, followed by lengthening when the next syllable contains /ə́/ such as for the words, پو خ /pox/ ‘cooked'cooked, ripe’ripe' and ړوند /ṛund/ ‘blind’'blind', illustrated above.
=====Monophthongization=====
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In adjectives with /aw/ or /wa/ in the stem [usually seen in the feminine tense], those sequences simplify to /o/ when stressed.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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|}
Back vowel breaking: '''تود''' /tod/ ‘hot’'hot'; stem = /''tawd''/.
=====Lengthening=====
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In a few consonant-final adjectives the stem vowel is deleted when not stressed.
'''Example = سور /sur/ -– red'''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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==== Case-marking suffixes ====
'''Stressed'''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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|}
'''Unstressed'''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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====Stressed====
'''Example = زلمی (young/youth -– ''the ی is stressed'') '''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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====Unstressed====
'''Example = سوی (burnt- ''the ی is unstressed'') '''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2"|
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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|-
! Vocative
| |سویه(''Northern'')<br/>sə́wyasə́way<br/>سوې(''Southern'')<br/>sə́we
| |سوو<br/>sə́wo
| |سوې<br/>sə́we
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=== Class 4 ===
This the "non-declining" class -– these do not decline. These adjectives are generally borrowed from other languages. They do not have masculine-feminine or singular-plural distinction.
But but some speakers use the oblique suffixes و /‑o/, وو /‑wo/ on these adjectives in the plural oblique, ablative and vocative cases.
'''Example = شمالي (Persian-Arabic borrowing) '''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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'''Example = شمالي (Southern Dialect) '''
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Masculine
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|ګر|| used to form an actor noun. Denoting maker, doer, worker etc. of the root.
|-
|چي || aan agent-noun suffix borrowed from [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]]. Only used with borrowed words.
|-
|ګوټی || a diminutive suffix. Example مېز [table] -– مېزګوټی [small table].
|-
|وزمه || suffix to indicate something is like/similar to the root word but not that word. Also used to denote shades of colour.
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== Infinitive ==
This is called Kaṛnúmay [کړنومی] in Pashto that is "the name of a verb".<ref name="neo">[{{cite web |url=http://qamosona.com/G/index.php/term/,6f57b19b6154609c6d57ababa561.xhtml |title=Neologism Dictionary [[M. A. Zeyar]]}}</ref> It shows an infinite action or occurrence. It is used as a noun. It acquires the gender and number of a masculine plural noun.
{| class="wikitable"
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|}
Example: وکړل [past perfective tense of the transitive verb کول -– "to do"] shows agreement with masculine plural object that is the infinitive وهل.
{{interlinear|number=ex:
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=== Double infinitives ===
These are formed by combining two infinitives<br />
--– either by combining a simple infinitive with a prefixed infinitive.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
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|}
<br />
--– or by combining two simple infinitives:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
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*Pashto has three [[Tense (grammar)|tenses]]: Past, present and future.
*The future tense is the same as present tense with the exception of markers.
*Aspect: Pashto in every tense has [[perfective aspect]] [بشپړاړخ]<ref>[http://www.qamosona.com/G/index.php/term/,6f57b19b6154609c6d57a8abab.xhtml Neologism Dictionary [M. A.name="neo" Zeyar]]</ref> and [[imperfective aspect]] [نابشپړاړخ]. The perfective aspect indicates completion of an action ''while'' the imperfective aspect indicates continuous or habitual action.
*Pashto verbs are of four categories: simple verbs, prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs.
*Prefixed verbs, a-initial verbs and compound verbs are separable.
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|}
Example: پرېکول -– to cut. The prefix [پرې] is separated from the verb stem [کول] by a second position clitic [يې]
{{interlinear|number=ex:
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x̌āista kawә́l
|-
|pretty
|prettty
|to make pretty
|-
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==== Transitve ====
Here is an example first conjugation class transitive verb: "to tie"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
! rowspan="3" | Verb
! rowspan="3" | Stem
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| rowspan="2" | -تړ<br />taṛ-
| rowspan="2" | -وتړل
wә́ taṛ әl-
| rowspan="2" | -تړل
taṛә́l-
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==== Intransitve ====
Here is an example first conjugation class intransitive verb: "to reach"
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="3" |Verb
! rowspan="3" |Stem
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The stems can either share initial sounds as in example:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ a) where ل is replaced by ن in the present tense:
! rowspan="2" | Verb
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|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ b) where و is added in the middle in the present tense:
! rowspan="2" | Verb
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|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ c) The verb ختل [to climb]:
! rowspan="2" | Verb
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|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ d) where دل is dropped in the present tense:
! rowspan="2" | Verb
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Example: the verb لیدل [to see]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Verb
! rowspan="2" | Present Stem
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Example one: the verb پرېښودل [to leave]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Verb
! rowspan="2" | Present Stem
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Observation: either three stemmed [ږد, کېږد, کېښود] or four stemmed [یښود ږد, کېږد, کېښود]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Verb
! rowspan="2" | Meaning
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Observation: Four stems
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Verb
! rowspan="2" | Meaning
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Observation: Four Stems
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Verb
! rowspan="2" | Meaning
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| -(تل(ل <br />tl(ә́l)-
|}
Observation: This example contains locative prefixes را,در,ور
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Verb
! rowspan="2" |MeaninggMeaning
! colspan="2" |Present
! colspan="2" |Past
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|}
Observation:Three stems:وړ [wṛ] for imperfective and یوس + یووړ for the perfectives . Note -– Prefixed وړل /wṛә́l/ ‘to'to carry’carry', use its weak stem [as illustrated with پرېوتل above]
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Verb
! rowspan="2" | Meaning
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=== کول and کېدل ===
Here there use as main verbs are eludedalluded to.
To the verb -– to do: The brackete [ṛ] in the present perfective base of کول /kawә́l/ ‘to'to do’do' indicates that it sometimes is not pronounced in speech<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=David|first=Anne Boyle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zK7zMgEACAAJ|title=Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and Its Dialects|date=2014|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-1-61451-303-2|page=219}}</ref>
'''Important''': Here there use as main verbs are eludedalluded to - when کول and کېدل are used as verbalizers, their perfective forms are not formed with the first conjugation prefix و /wә́/, but are irregular.<ref name=":5" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="4" | کول
kawә́l
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|}
To the verb -– to become
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="4" | کېدل
kedә́l
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== Verbs: aspect ==
Pashto in every tense has an [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]]: [[perfective aspect]] [بشپړاړخ] and [[imperfective aspect]] [نابشپړاړخ]. The perfective aspect indicates completion or termination of an action. The imperfective aspect indicates continuity of an action or the habitual nature of the action.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Present
Line 3,522:
! style="border-left;" |<small>Imperfective</small>
|-
! Verb -– خوړل [to eat]
| style="border-right: " |زه ډوډۍ '''وخورم''' نو بيا به راشم<br/>[Once] I eat food then i'll come
| style="border-left: " | زه ډوډۍ '''خورم'''<br/>I am eating
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{{See also|Pashto phonology}}
In both aspects the [[Stress (linguistics)|stress [خج]]] is applied to the verb. In perfective, the stress is applied to the initial part of the verb, while in the imperfective it is generally applied to the final part of the verb.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ullah|first=Noor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KToHywAACAAJ&q=pashto+grammar|title=Pashto Grammar|year=2011|isbn=978-1-4567-8007-4|page=11}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Aspect
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<ref name=":3" />
Example:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Aspect
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Example:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Aspect
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==== Third conjugation ====
These are called compound verbs above -– those with adjective complements and noun complements + forms of کول /kawə́l/ or کېدل /kedə́l/. Here the perfective is formed by:<ref name=":3" />
* shifting stress from the verbalizer to the noun or adjective complement, according to the lexical stress of noun or adjective
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Example 1:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Aspect
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Example 2:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Aspect
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===Personal suffixes ===
Verbal suffixes in Pashto denote [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical gender|gender]] and [[Grammatical number|number]].<ref name=":0" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Number
! Person
Line 3,752:
! Masculine
| verb stem only [no suffix]<br/>''or''<br/>ۀ / ه <br />ə
| و <br />o -– in Peshawar Dialect<br/>'''''See below'''''
|-
! Feminine
Line 3,762:
!
| و<br />u
| ي<br />i -– in Wazirwola and Dzadrani
|-
! 2nd person
!
| ئ<br />əɪ
|است<br /> āst -– in South Western
|-
! 3rd person present
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====Present imperfective tense====
Gəḍéẓ̌ is the present imperfective stem of the verb ''gaḍedəl'' [to dance].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Number
! Person
Line 3,817:
====Past imperfective tense====
Gəḍēd is the past stem of the verb ''gaḍēdəl'' [to dance].
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Number
! Person
Line 3,862:
''Example:''
* هغوی ګډېدل [They were dancing] -– can imply only males dancing or both males and females dancing
* هغوی ګډېدې [They were dancing] -– implies only women were dancing. It can also be used for transgenders [ايجړاګان] by itself. But you can not say ايجړاګان ګډېدې since ايجړا is a masculine noun so one would use ايجړاګان ګډېدل.
=== 3rd Person Past Singular Masculine ===
Generally ه [ə] or no-stem suffix is employed. But sometimes ئ [əi] is found also.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="5" |PAST -– 3rd Person Singular Masculine
|-
!Morphology
Line 3,950:
|-
|درتلل<br />dar tlә́l
to go
[towards 2nd person]
Line 4,007:
With وتل the plural suffix ل(əl) is not used instead:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |PAST -– 3rd Person Singular Masculine
! rowspan="2" |Change
! colspan="2" |PAST -– 3rd Person Plural Masculine
|-
!Verb
Line 4,103:
térwātә́
|}
== Verbs: agreement ==
=== Intransitive verbs ===
As can be seen from the intransitive verb above [ګډېدل] -– the verb agrees with the [[Subject (grammar)|subject]].
=== Agreement -– transitive verbs ===
* [[Ergative case|Ergative]] construction is used in the past tense of [[transitive verb]]s: the predicate [verb] agrees in person, number and gender with the [[Object (grammar)|object]]. The [[Subject (grammar)|subject]] changes to into the oblique case.
* In the present tense the transitive verb agrees with the subject: in person, number and gender.
Example 1: خوړل -– transitive verb -– to eat
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" |Past
Line 4,131 ⟶ 4,132:
|man
|-
|past perfective stem -– with
3rd person singular '''feminine''' verbal suffix
|noun -– singular, '''feminine''', direct case
|noun -– singular, masculine, '''oblique''' case
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center; |The man ate the food
Line 4,157 ⟶ 4,158:
|man
|-
|present imperfective stem -– with
3rd person singular '''masculine''' verbal suffix
|noun -– singular, feminine, direct case
|noun -– singular, '''masculine''', '''direct''' case
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center; |The man is eating the food
|}
Example 2: اغوستل -– transitive verb -– to put on/dress
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" |Past
Line 4,183 ⟶ 4,184:
|I
|-
|past perfective stem -– with
3rd person '''plural''' '''feminine''' verbal suffix
|noun -– '''plural feminine''' direct case
|noun -– singular, '''oblique''' case
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center; |I wore the clothes
Line 4,209 ⟶ 4,210:
|I
|-
|present imperfective stem -– with
'''1st person singular''' verbal suffix
|noun -– '''plural, feminine''', direct case
|noun -– '''singular''', '''direct''' case
|-
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center; |I am wearing the clothes
|}
==== Compound transitive verbs -– split agreement ====
In the present tense the nominal/adjectival part of the compound verb agrees with the object. But the auxiliary کول [to do] agrees with the subject.
Example: پاکول -– compound transitive verb -– to clean
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |Present
Line 4,247 ⟶ 4,248:
|man
|-
|present perfective stem -– with
3rd person singular masculine verbal suffix
|adjective -– '''''singular, feminine'',''' direct case
|noun -– '''''singular, feminine''','' direct case
|noun -– singular, masculine, direct case
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center; |[When] the man cleans the room
Line 4,257 ⟶ 4,258:
In the past both nominal/adjectival and auxiliary components agree with the object.
Example: پاکول -– compound transitive verb -– to clean
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |Past
Line 4,284 ⟶ 4,285:
|man
|-
|past imperfective stem -– with
3rd person '''plural feminine''' verbal suffix
|adjective -– '''plural, feminine,''' direct case
|noun -– '''plural, feminine''', direct case
|noun -– singular, masculine, oblique case
|-
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center; |The man was cleaning the rooms
|}
== Verbs: participle ==
Line 4,300 ⟶ 4,299:
The present participle is formed with the past imperfective stem without ل (əl) + ونک (unk) and declension follows the pattern of unstressed ی (ay).
Example ليکل [likəˈl] -– writer → ليک [lik] past imperfective stem → ليکونکی [likəwúnkay] -– writer
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Masculine
Line 4,362 ⟶ 4,361:
Example: of Category 1 verb رسېدل
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
Line 4,422 ⟶ 4,421:
==== Future perfect ====
Formed by به [future marker] +present perfect
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
Line 4,488 ⟶ 4,487:
Example:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |
! Singular
Line 4,672 ⟶ 4,671:
Example:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! Singular
Line 4,731 ⟶ 4,730:
Example:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! Singular
Line 4,781 ⟶ 4,780:
Perfective optative + past perfective of کېدل
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! Singular
Line 4,817 ⟶ 4,816:
|-
! colspan="2" | '''2nd'''
| ته يې<br />tə ye || تاسو يئ \ ياست<br />tā́so yəy<br />(in Southern dialect -– yāst)<ref name="Lebedev" /><ref name="KandahariGrammar">[http://learnpashtu.blogspot.ru/2010/12/short-summary-of-pashto-grammar.html Short Summary of Pashto Grammar]</ref>
|-
! rowspan="2" | '''3rd'''
Line 4,862 ⟶ 4,861:
|-
! colspan="2" | '''2nd'''
| ته وې<br />tə we || تاسو وئ\واست<br />tā́so wəy<br />(in Southern dialect -– wāst)<ref name="Lebedev" />
|-
! '''3rd'''
!Masc.
| دی ؤ<br />day wə || دوی وو\ول<br />dui wu<br />(in Southern dialect -– wəl)<ref name="MFarooq" /><ref name="KandahariGrammar" />
|-
! '''3rd'''
Line 4,916 ⟶ 4,915:
|}
=== "Wi" -– usage ===
وي ''[wi]'' is also used; this is the third person singular and plural of the present tense of the verb to be. وي is used when an assumption or a given fact is being discussed where as دی/ده/دي are used reporting an observation. شته functions as "there is" in English.
{| class="wikitable"
Line 4,935 ⟶ 4,934:
Formation: verb stem + an affix و /‑aw‑/.
The causative can either use the present stem or past stem [and sometimes both] -– depending on the original verb.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Original verb
! colspan="2" |Stem used in bold
Line 4,991 ⟶ 4,990:
|}
Example:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!خندل -– original verb
! خندول -– causative verb
|-
|مه خانده
Line 5,006 ⟶ 5,005:
== Verbs: imperative form ==
This is used to make commands. The present stems of the verbs are used to make commands:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Verb
! colspan="2" |Stem used in bold
Line 5,021 ⟶ 5,020:
=== Number ===
The two verbal suffixes are employed:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!Number
! Suffix
Line 5,034 ⟶ 5,033:
|}
Example:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" | Verb
! colspan="2" |Number
Line 5,053 ⟶ 5,052:
=== Positive command ===
Pashto positive imperative have two aspects: perfective (initial stress) an imperfective (final stress)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |وهل -– to beat
wahә́l
|-
Line 5,078 ⟶ 5,077:
===== Transitive =====
For compounds in the transitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the direct object.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |پاکول -– to clean
pākawә́l
|-
Line 5,097 ⟶ 5,096:
|}
Where the is no object, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |پاکول -– to clean
pākawә́l
|-
Line 5,120 ⟶ 5,119:
===== Intransitive =====
For compounds in the intransitive, the nominal/adjective part of the verb agrees with the subject
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |پاکېدل -– to get clean
pākedә́l
|-
Line 5,140 ⟶ 5,139:
Compare:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |وهل -– to beat
wahә́l
|-
Line 5,158 ⟶ 5,157:
==== Prefixed verbs ====
North Eastern Pashto treats negative forms differently for prefixed verbs, placing the negative particle before the entire verb, whereas some other dialects place it between the prefix and the stem.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" |پرېکول -– to cut
prekawә́l
|-
Line 5,456 ⟶ 5,455:
== Future Tense ==
The future tense is formformed with the addition of به /bә/; which has been defined by Tegey as a "future marker"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tegey|first=Habibullah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQGVvQEACAAJ&q=Tegey+pashto+grammar|title=A Reference Grammar of Pashto|date=1996|publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics|page=126}}</ref> and as a "modal clitic" by Boyle.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=David|first=Anne Boyle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zK7zMgEACAAJ|title=Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and Its Dialects|date=2014|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-1-61451-303-2|page=369}}</ref>
=== Future Expression ===
The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present perfective verb to convey future time event, speculation, or doubt.<ref name=":6" />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | Verb
! Present Perfective
Line 5,495 ⟶ 5,494:
=== With Present Imperfective Tense ===
The clitic به /bә/ is added to the present imperfective verb to convey future event -– but with. different nuances explained below.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | Verb
! Present Imperfective
Line 5,657 ⟶ 5,656:
=== Second Conjugation Class ===
First: Between the prefix and the verb base نه /nә́/ is placed<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tegey|first=Habibullah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQGVvQEACAAJ|title=A Reference Grammar of Pashto|date=1996|publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics|page=129}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! Verb
! Example
Line 5,709 ⟶ 5,708:
== "Bә" With Past Imperfective Tense ==
The marker به /bә/ is also used to convey habitual actions in the past.<ref>{{Cite book|last=David|first=Anne Boyle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zK7zMgEACAAJ&q=pashto+grammar|title=Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and Its Dialects|date=2014|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-1-61451-303-2|pages=369, 371}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
! colspan="2" | Verb
! Past Imperfective
Line 5,777 ⟶ 5,776:
Common adverbs of time:
{| class="wikitable"
! Adverb !! TranliterationTransliteration !! Meaning
|-
!تل
Line 5,894 ⟶ 5,893:
!هيچرې
|hičárta
| rowspan="2" |nowhernowhere
|-
!هيچرته
Line 5,985 ⟶ 5,984:
|without
|
# Considered as prefix. But can also be considered a preposition since the noun followed by بې shows ablative case-marking e.g. بې پلاره -– with پلار being in the ablative case
|-
!په
Line 6,002 ⟶ 6,001:
|till; than
|
# Usually used as aan ambiposition/circumpositions to express "up to, until" e.g. تر پېښور پورې لاړم [I went till Peshawar]
# As a preposition; is used in comparative and superlative constructions e.g. زه تر ماما دنګ يم [I am taller than my maternal-uncle]
|-
Line 6,032 ⟶ 6,031:
|for
|
# Denotes receipentsrecipients e.g. ځان ته څپلۍ هم اخلم [I am buying shoes also for myself]
|}
Line 6,131 ⟶ 6,130:
də...na
'from'
‘from’
|د ...لاندې
də...lā́nde
'under'
‘under’
|
|د ... پسې
də...pəsé
'after'
‘after’
|د ... پورې
də...póre
‘up'up to,
across'
across’
|د...سره
də...sará
'with'
‘with’
|
|د...څخه
də...tsә́xa
'from'
‘from’
|-
!...له
Line 6,164 ⟶ 6,163:
lə...na
'from'
‘from’
|له...لاندې
lə...lā́nde
'under'
‘under’
|
|
Line 6,175 ⟶ 6,174:
lə...sará
'with'
‘with’
|
|له...څخه
lə...tsә́xa
'from'
‘from’
|-
!...پر
Line 6,187 ⟶ 6,186:
pə...ke
‘in'in, at, on’on'
|
|
Line 6,193 ⟶ 6,192:
pə...bā́nde
‘on'on top of, by
means of’of'
| rowspan="2" |په...پسې
pə...pəsé
'after,
‘after,
behind'
behind’
|پر ... پورې
pər...póre
'with'
‘with’
| rowspan="2" |په...سره
pə...sará
'with'
‘with’
|
|
Line 6,229 ⟶ 6,228:
tər...lā́nde
'under'
‘under’
|
|
Line 6,235 ⟶ 6,234:
tər...póre
‘until'until, up to’to'
|
|
Line 6,316 ⟶ 6,315:
|-
!
!Component
!Componnent
!Meaning
|-
Line 6,445 ⟶ 6,444:
Used with:
* ته /tə/ ‘to’'to'
* سره /səra/ ‘'[comitative] with’with'
* the prepositions د /də/ ‘of’'of' and په /pə/ ‘at’'at', plus any circumposition consisting of a postposition and one of these two prepositions;
* the circumposition له ... نه /lə ... na/ ‘from'from/.
Example: سړی [using preposition د] and ښځه [using preposition په] are in oblique case; compare ملګری in direct case
Line 6,472 ⟶ 6,471:
Used with:
* له /lə/ ‘from’'from'; and also د /də/ having the same meaning 'from'
* تر /tər/ ‘from'from, originating from'
* Circumposition containing تر /tər/, له /lə/; except له ... نه /lə ... na/ ‘from'from/
*په /pə/ the instrumental usage only found in construction with an adjectival, rather than nominal, object
Line 6,488 ⟶ 6,487:
DIR:directional}}
With د /də/, having the object marked in the ablative case gives the sense of ‘'(motion) away from’from':
{{interlinear|number=ex:
Line 6,499 ⟶ 6,498:
DIR:directional}}
په /pə/ ‘the'the instrumental usage + adjective:
{{interlinear|number=ex:
Line 6,533 ⟶ 6,532:
== Passive voice ==
Pashto does not have a distinguishable morphological passive construction. The construction identified by some comprises a special case of denominal verbs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ullah|first=Noor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-XRingEACAAJ|title=Pashto Grammar|date=2011|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1-4567-8007-4|page=71}}</ref> The verbal part of the construction consists of a form of the verbaliser کېدل /kedә́l (‘to'to become’become') and a verbal complement (in the infinitive form).The actor is expressed as the subject of the sentence, and that noun is case-marked direct and triggers verb agreement (in both past and present).
{{interlinear|number=ex:
Line 6,700 ⟶ 6,699:
==== دې ====
The modal دې [de; Southern dialects: di] expresses a duty or obligation like "must " when used with the perfective tense of a verb.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tegey|first=Habibullah|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ey5bmgEACAAJ&q=tegey+pashto+grammar|title=A Reference Grammar of Pashto|date=1996|publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics|page=148}}</ref>
{{interlinear|number=ex:
Line 6,750 ⟶ 6,749:
NEC:modal of necessity or obligation}}
Note: as an emphatic خو /xo/ is considered to be different from the conjunction خو /xo/ ‘but’'but'.
=== Possibility ===
Line 6,771 ⟶ 6,770:
==== کېدی شي ====
Kedáy ši (could become) which potential construction of the verb "to become" -– کېدل /kedә́l/ is also used as particle to denote possibility -– again as above '''چې''' maybe used
{{interlinear|number=ex:
Line 6,822 ⟶ 6,821:
oh what did you do
|-
!وئ<ref>{{Cite web|title=وئ -– Daryab Pashto Glossary [Qalandar Momand]|url=https://qamosona.com/G3/index.php/term/,6f57ae9b61545a9c6d57b1b0a55d5eae.xhtml|access-date=2021-03-05|website=qamosona.com}}</ref>
|wə́i
|darn it, ouch
Line 6,834 ⟶ 6,833:
The particle کاشکې /kāške/ or کاشکي /kāški/ is used as English "if only"; to express wish or desire that something would happen or would have happened.<ref>{{Cite book|last=David|first=Anne Boyle|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zK7zMgEACAAJ|title=Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and Its Dialects|date=2014|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|isbn=978-1-61451-303-2|page=347}}</ref>
It can be used with aan optative verb, to express a counterfactual wish.
{{interlinear|number=ex:
Line 6,849 ⟶ 6,848:
It can also be used with the present perfective verb, to express a polite request.
Example, from [[Khan Abdul Ghani Khan|Ghani Khan's]] poetry:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meena (unplugged) {{!}} Bilawal Sayed {{!}} Ghani Khan -– YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sRlHkcEpAck|access-date=2021-02-06|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>
{{interlinear|number=ex:
Line 6,866 ⟶ 6,865:
=== راوړل and راوستل ===
Both راوستل /rāwastә́l/ and راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ are both transitive verbs denoting the meaning of "to bring"; but their nuance is different. راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is directly involved thus have the meaning more inline with "to bring and carry". راوستل /rāwastә́l/ has the meaning in which the subject is causing the object to be brought but the object by its own motion is come thus having a meaning closer to "to bring along".<ref>{{Cite web|title=د (را وړل) او (را وستل) توپیر -– YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r46gYlo7cnY|access-date=2021-02-08|website=www.youtube.com}}</ref>
==== Tangible Objects ====
Line 6,899 ⟶ 6,898:
COMP: complementizer}}
''Explanation:'' Here the water is being brought by the speaker as he/she has caused its bringing e.g. has made a canal/channel from the river bringing about the water
==== Intangible Objects ====
Line 6,916 ⟶ 6,915:
COMP: complementizer}}
But for bringing "news", "omens/luck" or "diseases" راوړل /rāwṛә́l/ is used -– perhaps as the subject is implied to carry it.
{{interlinear|number=ex:
Line 6,933 ⟶ 6,932:
As noted by Ghaza Noor, the choice of an adjective suffix can also have a change on the meaning.<ref>{{Citation|title=اغېزناک او اغېزمن|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zQ_SJEBgt8I|language=en|access-date=2021-02-18}}</ref>
Example: اغېز -– ağéz -– effect [noun.masc.sing and plural]
{| class="wikitable"
!Adjective
Line 6,994 ⟶ 6,993:
====Noun phrases====
Pashto noun phrases generally exhibit the internal order determiner -– quantifier -– adjective -– noun.<ref name="Anna B. David 2014 399"/>
====Adpositional phrases====
Line 7,007 ⟶ 7,006:
As verbs are a closed class in Pashto, the LVC is the only means of creating new verbal forms in the language; it is also used as a way of importing loanwords, with the borrowed word filling the complement slot.<ref name="Anna B. David 2014 401"/>
The inventory of light verbs in Pashto should not surprise anyone familiar with LVCs. In addition to the verbs کېدل /kedəl/ ‘to'to become’become' and کول /kawəl/ ‘to'to make; to do’do', which we refer to as the intransitive and transitive verbalisers when they act as light verbs, Pashto uses the verbs اخیستل /axistəl/ ‘to'to take’take', وهل /wahəl/ ‘to'to beat’beat', نيول /niwəl/ ‘to'to seize; to grasp’grasp', and ایستل /istəl/ ‘to'to throw out’out' as light verbs.
Adjective complements of N-V LVCs always show agreement with the undergoer of the action of the verb, which is in turn marked in accordance with Pashto's system of split ergativity. Nominal complements are usually treated as the direct object of the verb, and are therefore also case-marked according to split-ergative alignment. The undergoer of the action, on the other hand, cannot be a direct object, as the verb can have at most two arguments; it is instead indicated by an adposition and accordingly case-marked oblique.<ref name="Anna B. David 2014 403">{{cite book|title= A Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects|first= Anna B.|last= David|isbn=978-1-61451-303-2|year=2014|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|page=403}}</ref>
Line 7,022 ⟶ 7,021:
*The adverbial clitics خو /xo/ and نو /no/
* The negatives نه /ná/ and مه /má/
Modals, weak personal pronouns, and adverbials are all second-position clitics. They also obey strict rules of ordering relative to each other. Tegey (1977) reports the following ordering of enclitics between verbal components: خو /xo/> به /bə/> { مو /mo/| مې /me/| دې /de/| یې /ye/} > نو /no/. If the first syllable of the verb does not carry stress (that is, if it is an imperfective form), the negative precedes the verb, and the clitics follow the negative. Also, if ana perfective form is negated, the negative marker—not the initial syllable of the verb—takes the stress.<ref>{{cite book|title= A Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects|first= Anna B.|last= David|isbn=978-1-61451-303-2|year=2014|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|pages=403–404}}</ref>
======Negative placement in the perfective verb phrase======
The negative particle نه /ná/ nearly always precedes the verb and is placed as close to the verb stem as possible. In perfective constructions, it therefore follows the perfective marker و /wə/ for simplex verbs, and either initial /a/, the prefix, or the light verb complement for complex verbs. Because it carries an inherent stress, it takes the main stress in ana perfective verb phrase.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|first=Anna B.|last=David|title=A Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects|publisher=De Gruyter Mouton|year=2014|isbn=978-1-61451-303-2|page=192}}</ref>
== Numbers ==
Line 7,307 ⟶ 7,306:
*Mohammad Abid Khan & Fatima-Tuz-Zuhra, "Towards the Computational treatment of the Pashto Verb" 18(1) Scientific Khyber pp. 123–141 (2005)
* Noor Ullah, "Pashto Grammar" (2011), {{ISBN|978-1-4567-8007-4}}
* M. Zyar, "''ليک لارښود'' -– Writing Guide" (2006)
{{Pashto language}}
{{Grammars of South Asian languages}}
{{language grammars}}
[[Category:Pashto]]
[[Category:Iranian grammars]]