Progressive Era: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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| name = Progressive Era

|location = United States

| start = ~~1896~~1901

| end = [[#Decline|1919]] or [[#Business progressivism|1929]]

| image = [[File:Henry Mayer, The Awakening, 1915 Cornell CUL PJM 1176 01 - Restoration.jpg|200px]]

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| including = [[Fourth Party System]]

| after = [[United States in World War I|World War I]] [[Roaring Twenties]]

| presidents = [[William McKinley]] [[Theodore Roosevelt]] [[William Howard Taft]] [[Woodrow Wilson]] [[Warren G. Harding]] [[Calvin Coolidge]] [[Herbert Hoover]]

| key_events = [[Nadir of American race relations]] [[United States anti-trust law|Trust-busting]] [[Women's suffrage in the United States|Women's suffrage]] [[History of direct democracy in the United States|Initiative and Referendum]] [[Spanish–American War]] [[Philippine–American War]] [[Square Deal]]

}}

The '''Progressive Era''' (~~1896–1917~~1901–1929) was a period in the United States during the early 20th century of widespread social activism and political reform across the country. <ref>John D. Buenker, John C. Boosham, and Robert M. Crunden, ''Progressivism'' (1986) pp 3–21</ref><ref>Arthur S. Link, "What Happened to the Progressive Movement in the 1920s?." ''American Historical Review'' 64.4 (1959): 833–851.</ref> [[Progressivism in the United States|Progressive]]s sought to address the problems caused by rapid industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and political corruption as well as the enormous concentration of industrial ownership in monopolies. Progressive reformers were alarmed by the spread of slums, poverty, and the exploitation of labor. Multiple overlapping progressive movements fought perceived social, political, and economic ills by advancing democracy, scientific methods, and professionalism; regulating business; protecting the natural environment; and improving working and living conditions of the urban poor.<ref name="Auto29-3">{{cite web|url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/overview/ |title=Progressive Era to New Era |publisher=Library of Congress}}{{source-attribution}}</ref>

Corrupt and undemocratic [[political machine]]s and their bosses were a major target of Progressive reformers. To revitalize democracy, progressives established direct [[primary election]]s, [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|direct election of senators]] (rather than by state legislatures), [[Initiatives and referendums in the United States|~~initiative~~initiatives and ~~referendum~~referenda]],<ref name="Britannica">{{cite web |title=United States History. The Progressive Era Key Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/The-Progressive-Era-Key-Facts |publisher=Britannica}}</ref> and [[Women's suffrage in the United States|women's suffrage]] which was promoted to advance democracy and bring the presumed moral influence of women into politics.<ref>On purification, see David W. Southern, ''The Malignant Heritage: Yankee Progressives and the Negro Question, 1900–1915'' (1968); Southern, ''The Progressive Era And Race: Reaction And Reform 1900–1917'' (2005); Norman H. Clark, ''Deliver Us from Evil: An Interpretation of American Prohibition'' (1976) p 170; and [[Aileen Kraditor]], ''The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement: 1890–1920'' (1967). 134–136.</ref> For many progressives, [[prohibition in the United States|prohibition of alcoholic beverages]]<ref>James H. Timberlake, ''Prohibition and the Progressive Movement, 1900–1920'' (1970) pp. 1–7.</ref> was key to eliminating corruption in politics as well as improving social conditions.

Another target were [[Monopoly|monopolies]], which Progressives worked to regulate through [[trustbusting]] and [[United States antitrust law|antitrust laws]] with the goal of promoting fair competition. Progressives also advocated new government agencies focused on regulation of industry.<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Kazin|title=The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political Turn up History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fsWLGcZ7pyAC&pg=PA181|year=2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|page=181|isbn=978-1400839469|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

An additional goal of Progressives was bringing to bear scientific, medical, and engineering solutions to reform government and education and foster improvements in various fields including medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, and churches. They aimed to professionalize the social sciences, especially history,<ref name="Richard Hofstadter 1968"/> economics,<ref name="ReferenceB"/> and political science<ref name="Barry Karl 1975"/> and improve efficiency with [[scientific management]], or [[Scientific management|Taylorism]].<ref>Lewis L. Gould, ''America in the Progressive Era, 1890–1914'' (2000)</ref><ref>[[David B. Tyack]], ''The One Best System: A History of American Urban Education'' (Harvard UP, 1974), p. 39</ref>

Initially, the movement operated chiefly at the local level, but later it expanded to the state and national levels. Progressive leaders were often from the educated middle class, and various Progressive reform efforts drew support from lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, business people, and the working class.<ref>George Mowry, ''The California Progressives'' (1963) p 91.</ref>

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=====Charles Evans Hughes=====

New York Governor [[Charles Evans Hughes]] is known for exposing the insurance industry. During his time in office he promoted a range of reforms. As presidential candidate in 1916 he lost after alienating progressive California voters. As Associate Justice of the Supreme Court, he often sided with [[Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.|Oliver Wendell Holmes]] in upholding popular reforms such as the minimum wage, workmen's compensation, and maximum work hours for women and children.<ref>{{harvnb|Shesol|2010|p=27}}</ref> He also wrote several opinions upholding the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce under the [[Commerce Clause]]. His majority opinion in the ''Baltimore and Ohio Railroad v. Interstate Commerce Commission'' upheld the right of the federal government to regulate the hours of railroad workers.<ref name="Shoemaker 2004 63–64">{{harvnb|Shoemaker|2004|pp=63–64}}</ref> His majority opinion in the 1914 [[Houston East & West Texas Railway Co. v. United States|Shreveport Rate Case]] upheld a decision by the [[Interstate Commerce Commission]] to void discriminatory railroad rates imposed by the [[Railroad Commission of Texas]]. The decision established that the federal government could regulate intrastate commerce when it affected interstate commerce, though Hughes avoided directly overruling the 1895 case of ''[[United States v. E. C. Knight Co.]]''<ref>{{harvnb|Henretta|2006|pp=136–137}}</ref> As Chief Justice of the Supreme Court he took a moderate middle position and upheld key New Deal laws.<ref>{{harvnb|Henretta|2006|pp=115–171}}</ref>

=====Gifford Pinchot=====

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[[File:Hine - Indiana glassworks night scene, 1908 1.JPG|thumb|Glass works in Indiana, from a 1908 photograph by [[Lewis Hine]]]]

There were many dramatic changes in the condition of American workers from 1915 to 2015.<ref>See Carol Boyd Leon, "The life of American workers in 1915," ''Monthly Labor Review'' (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, February 2016) comparison in many aspects with 2015. [https://doi.org/10.21916/mlr.2016.5 online]</ref>

Labor unions, especially those affiliated with the [[American Federation of Labor]] (AFL), grew rapidly in the early 20th century, and had a Progressive agenda as well. After experimenting in the early 20th century with cooperation with business in the [[National Civic Federation]], the AFL turned after 1906 to a working political alliance with the Democratic party. The alliance was especially important in the larger industrial cities. The unions wanted restrictions on judges who intervened in labor disputes, usually on the side of the employer. They finally achieved that goal with the [[Norris–La Guardia Act]] of 1932.<ref>[[Julie Greene]], ''Pure and Simple Politics: The American Federation of Labor and Political Activism, 1881–1917'' (1998)</ref>

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The [[National American Woman Suffrage Association]] (NAWSA) was an American women's rights organization formed in May 1890 as a unification of the [[National Woman Suffrage Association]] (NWSA) and the [[American Woman Suffrage Association]] (AWSA). The NAWSA set up hundreds of smaller local and state groups, with the goal of passing [[Women's suffrage|woman suffrage]] legislation at the state and local level. The NAWSA was the largest and most important suffrage organization in the United States, and was the primary promoter of women's right to vote. [[Carrie Chapman Catt]] was the key leader in the early 20th century. Like AWSA and NWSA before it, the NAWSA pushed for a constitutional amendment guaranteeing women's voting rights, and was instrumental in winning the ratification of the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]] in 1920.<ref>Eleanor Flexner, ''Century of Struggle'' (1959), pp. 208–217.</ref><ref>Corrine M. McConnaughy, ''The Woman Suffrage Movement in America: A Reassessment'' (2013).</ref> A breakaway group, the [[National Woman's Party]], tightly controlled by [[Alice Paul]], used [[civil disobedience]] to gain publicity and force passage of suffrage. Paul's members chained themselves to the White House fence to get arrested, then went on hunger strikes to gain publicity. While the British suffragettes stopped their protests in 1914 and supported the British war effort, Paul began her campaign in 1917 and was widely criticized for ignoring the war and attracting radical anti-war elements.<ref>Nancy F. Cott, ''The Grounding of Modern Feminism'' (1989) pp. 51–82</ref>

A lesser-known feminist movement in the progressive era was the self-defense movement. According to Wendy Rouse, feminists sought to raise awareness about the sexual harassment and violence that women faced on the street, at work, and in the home. They wanted to inspire a sense of physical and personal empowerment through training in active self-defense.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rouse |first=Wendy L. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/989726274 |title=Her own hero: the origins of the women's self-defense movement |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-4798-7276-3 |publisher=New York University Press |location=New York |oclc=989726274}}</ref>

===Race relations===

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==== Cities During the Progressive Era ====

In the early 1900s, the United States entered a period of peace, prosperity, and progress. In the nation's growing cities, factory output grew, small businesses flourished, and incomes rose. As the promise of jobs and higher wages attracted more and more people into the cities, the U.S. began to shift to a nation of city dwellers. By 1900, 30 million people, or 30 percent of the total population, lived in cities.<ref name="AutoPK-166">{{Cite web |title=Cities During the Progressive Era {{!}} Progressive Era to New Era, 1900-1929 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/cities-during-progressive-era/ |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=Library of Congress}}{{source-attribution}}</ref>

The mass migration of people into the cities enriched some people but caused severe problems for others. For the emerging middle class, benefiting from growing incomes and increases in leisure time, the expanding city offered many advantages. Department stores, chain stores, and shopping centers emerged to meet the growing demand for material goods. Parks, amusement parks, and baseball stadiums were built to meet aesthetic and recreational needs. Transportation systems improved, as did the general infrastructure, better meeting the increased needs of the middle and upper class city dwellers.<ref name="AutoPK-166"/>

Thousands of poor people also lived in the cities. Lured by the promise of prosperity, many rural families and immigrants from throughout the world arrived in the cities to work in the factories. It is estimated that by 1904 one in three people living in the cities was close to starving to death. For many of the urban poor, living in the city resulted in a decreased quality of life. With few city services to rely upon, the working class lived daily with overcrowding, inadequate water facilities, unpaved streets, and disease. Lagging far behind the middle class, working class wages provided little more than subsistence living and few, if any, opportunities for movement out of the city slums.<ref name="AutoPK-166"/>

To find additional documents in Loc.gov on this topic, you might consider conducting searches using such terms as urbanization, urban immigrants, progressivism, and the names of individual cities such as Cincinnati, St. Louis, Philadelphia, and New Orleans.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cities During the Progressive Era {{!}} Progressive Era to New Era, 1900-1929 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/cities-during-progressive-era/ |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref>

'''Business progressivism in 1920s'''

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==== Automobiles in the Progressive and New Eras ====

[[File:Automobiles and the Progressive Era.jpg|thumb|Progressive Era Automobile 1923 Ford roadster]]

Sociologists Robert and Helen Lynd conducted a major study of American society during the 1920s. In 1929, they published their research in a book titled ''Middletown''. "Middletown" was the name used to disguise Muncie, Indiana, the actual place where they conducted their research. One of their findings was that the automobile had transformed the lives of people living in Middletown and, by extension, virtually everywhere else in the United States.<ref name="Auto0Z-167">{{Cite web |title=Automobiles in the Progressive and New Eras {{!}} Progressive Era to New Era, 1900-1929 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/automobiles-in-progressive-and-new-eras/ |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=Library of Congress}}{{source-attribution}}</ref>

More specifically, the Lynds found that the automobile had such effects as the following: (1) family budgets had changed dramatically; (2) ministers complained that people drove their cars rather than going to church; (3) parents were concerned that their boys and girls were spending too much time together "motoring"; and (4) the car had revolutionized the way people spent their free time.<ref name="Auto0Z-167"/>

These primary sources also indicate the impact of the automobile on Americans' lives. Some of those effects were seen as positive; others were much more troubling.<ref~~>{{Cite~~ ~~web |title~~name=~~Automobiles in the Progressive and New Eras {{!}} Progressive Era to New Era, 1900~~"Auto0Z-1929 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/automobiles-in-progressive-and-new-eras/ |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}<167"/~~ref~~>

===Rural reform===

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=== Conservation of Natural Resources in the Progressive Era ===

[[File:Progressive Era-Yosemite Valley California.jpg|right|frameless|266x266px]]

In the mid to late 19th century, natural resources were heavily exploited, especially in the West. Land speculators and developers took over large tracts of forests and grazing land. Acreage important to waterpower was seized by private concerns. Mining companies practiced improper and wasteful mining practices. Assuming a seemingly inexhaustible supply of natural resources, Americans developed a "tradition of waste."<ref name="AutoYL-177">{{Cite web |title=Conservation in the Progressive Era {{!}} Progressive Era to New Era, 1900-1929 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/conservation-in-progressive-era/ |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=Library of Congress }}{{source-attribution}}</ref>

Alarmed by the public's attitude toward natural resources as well as the exploitation of natural resources for private gain, conservationists called for federal supervision of the nation's resources and the preservation of those resources for future generations. In President Theodore Roosevelt, the conservationists found a sympathetic ear and man of action. Conservation of the nation's resources, putting an end to wasteful uses of raw materials, and the reclamation of large areas of neglected land have been identified as some of the major achievements of the Roosevelt era.<ref name="AutoYL-177"/>

President Roosevelt's concern for the environment was influenced by American naturalists, such as John Muir, and by his own political appointees, including Gifford Pinchot, Chief of Forestry. Working in concert with many individuals and organizations, the Roosevelt administration was responsible for the following: the Newlands Act of 1902, which funded irrigation projects from the proceeds of the sale of federal lands in the West; the appointment of the Inland Waterways Commission in 1907 to study the relation of rivers, soil, forest, waterpower development, and water transportation; and the National Conservation Commission of 1909, which was charged with drawing up long-range plans for preserving national resources. Along with a vocal group of conservationists, the Roosevelt administration created an environmental conservation movement whose words and actions continue to be heard and felt throughout the ~~nation~~US today.<ref~~>{{Cite~~ ~~web |title~~name=~~Conservation in the Progressive Era {{!}} Progressive Era to New Era, 1900~~"AutoYL-~~1929 {{!}} U.S. History Primary Source Timeline {{!}} Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress {{!}} Library of Congress |url=https:~~177"//www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/united-states-history-primary-source-timeline/progressive-era-to-new-era-1900-1929/conservation-in-progressive-era/ |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref>

===Modern vs traditional conflicts===

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==Immigration policy==

The influx of [[Immigration to the United States|immigration]] grew steadily after 1896, with most new arrivals being unskilled workers from southern and eastern Europe. These immigrants were able to find work in the steel mills, slaughterhouses, fishing industry, and construction crews of the emergent mill towns and industrial cities mostly in the Northeast, Midwest, and West Coast. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 halted most transcontinental immigration, only after 1919 did the flow of immigrants resume. Starting in the 1880s, the labor unions aggressively promoted restrictions on immigration, especially restrictions on Chinese, Japanese and Korean immigrants.<ref>[[Robert D. Parmet]], ''Labor and immigration in industrial America'' (1987) p. 146</ref> In combination with the racist attitudes of the time, there was a fear that large numbers of unskilled, low-paid workers would defeat the union's efforts to raise wages through collective bargaining.<ref>Gwendolyn Mink, ''Old Labor and New Immigrants in American Political Development: Union, Party and State, 1875–1920'' (1990)</ref> In addition, rural Protestants distrusted the urban Catholic and Jewish immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, and on those grounds opposed immigration.<ref>Daniel J. Tichenor, ''Dividing lines: the politics of immigration control in America'' (2002) p. 71</ref> On the other hand, the rapid growth of industry called for a greater and expanding labor pool that could not be met by natural birth rates. As a result, many large corporations were opposed to immigration restrictions. By the early 1920s, a consensus had been reached that the total influx of immigration had to be restricted, and a series of laws in the 1920s accomplished that purpose.<ref>[[Claudia Goldin]], "The Political Economy of Immigration Restriction in the United States, 1890 to 1921", in Goldin, ''The regulated economy'' (1994) ch 7.</ref> A handful of eugenics advocates were also involved in immigration restriction for their own pseudo-scientific reasons.<ref>Thomas C. Leonard, [http://www.princeton.edu/~tleonard/papers/retrospectives.pdf "Retrospectives: Eugenics and Economics in the Progressive Era"] ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', (2005) 19(4): 207–224</ref> Immigration restriction continued to be a national policy until after World War II.

During World War I, the Progressives strongly promoted [[Americanization (immigration)|Americanization]] programs, designed to modernize the recent immigrants and turn them into model American citizens, while diminishing loyalties to the old country.<ref>James R. Barrett, "Americanization from the Bottom, Up: Immigration and the Remaking of the American Working Class, 1880–1930", ''Journal of American History'' 79 (December 1992): 996–1020. {{JSTOR|2080796}}.</ref> These programs often operated through the public school system, which expanded dramatically.<ref>Christina A. Ziegler-McPherson, ''Americanization in the States: Immigrant Social Welfare Policy, Citizenship, and National Identity in the United States, 1908–1929'' (2009)</ref>

The [[Immigration Act of 1924]], or Johnson–Reed Act, including the [[Asian Exclusion Act]] and [[National Origins Act]] , was a federal law that prevented immigration from Asia and set quotas on the number of immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe. It also authorized the creation of the country's first formal border control service, the [[United States Border Patrol|U.S. Border Patrol]], and established a "consular control system" that allowed entry only to those who first obtained a [[Travel visa|visa]] from a U.S. consulate abroad.

== Foreign policy ==

[[File:Annexation Here to Stay.jpg|thumb|Newspaper reporting the [[Newlands Resolution|annexation]] of the [[Republic of Hawaii]] in 1898]]

Progressives looked to legal [[Arbitration#History|arbitration]] as an alternative to warfare. The two leading proponents were Taft, a constitutional lawyer who later became Chief Justice, and Democratic ~~leaders~~leader William Jennings Bryan. Taft's political base was the conservative business community which largely supported peace movements before 1914. The businessmen believed that economic rivalries were cause of war, and that extensive trade led to an interdependent world that would make war a very expensive and useless anachronism. One early success came in the Newfoundland fisheries dispute between the United States and Britain in 1910. In 1911, Taft's diplomats signed wide-ranging arbitration treaties with France and Britain. However he was defeated by former President Theodore Roosevelt, who had broken with his protégé Taft in 1910. They were dueling for control of the Republican Party and Roosevelt encouraged the Senate to impose amendments that significantly weakened the treaties. On the one hand, Roosevelt was acting to sabotage Taft's campaign promises.<ref>E. James Hindman, "The General Arbitration Treaties of William Howard Taft." ''Historian'' 36.1 (1973): 52–65. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24443896 online]</ref> At a deeper level, Roosevelt truly believed that arbitration was a naïve solution and the great issues had to be decided by warfare. The Roosevelt in approach incorporated a near-mystical faith of the ennobling nature of war. It endorsed jingoistic nationalism as opposed to the businessmen's calculation of profit and national interest.

<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor = 1894200|title = Taft, Roosevelt, and the Arbitration Treaties of 1911|journal = The Journal of American History|volume = 53|issue = 2|pages = 279–298|last1 = Campbell|first1 = John P.|year = 1966|doi = 10.2307/1894200}}</ref>

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By 1917, two-thirds of the states had some form of prohibition laws and roughly three-quarters of the population lived in dry areas. In 1913, the Anti-Saloon League first publicly appealed for a prohibition amendment. They preferred a constitutional amendment over a federal statute because although harder to achieve, they felt it would be harder to change. As the United States entered World War I, the Conscription Act banned the sale of liquor near military bases.<ref>S.J. Mennell, "Prohibition: A Sociological View," ''Journal of American Studies'' 3, no. 2 (1969): 159–75.</ref> In August 1917, the Lever [[Food and Fuel Control Act]] banned production of distilled spirits for the duration of the war. The War Prohibition Act, November 1918, forbade the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages (more than 2.75% alcohol content) until the end of demobilization.

The drys worked energetically to secure two-thirds majority of both houses of Congress and the support of three-quarters of the states needed for an amendment to the federal constitution. Thirty-six states were needed, and organizations were set up at all 48 states to seek ratification. In late 1917, Congress passed the Eighteenth Amendment; it was ratified in 1919 and took effect in January 1920. It prohibited the manufacturing, sale or transport of intoxicating beverages within the United States, as well as import and export. The [[Volstead Act]], 1919, defined intoxicating as having alcohol content greater than 0.5% and established the procedures for federal enforcement of the Act. The states were at liberty to enforce prohibition or not, and most did not try.<ref name="David">David E. Kyvig'', Repealing National Prohibition'' (2000)</ref>

Consumer demand, however, led to a variety of illegal sources for alcohol, especially illegal distilleries and smuggling from Canada and other countries. It is difficult to determine the level of compliance, and although the media at the time portrayed the law as highly ineffective, even if it did not eradicate the use of alcohol, it certainly decreased alcohol consumption during the period. The Eighteenth Amendment was repealed in 1933, with the passage of the Twenty-First Amendment, thanks to a well-organized repeal campaign led by Catholics (who stressed personal liberty) and businessmen (who stressed the lost tax revenue).<ref name="David" />

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* [[William James Mayo|Mayo Brothers]], medicine

* [[Fayette Avery McKenzie]], sociologist

* [[J. Howard Moore]], zoologist, philosopher, educator, and social reformer

* [[John R. Mott]], YMCA leader

* [[George Mundelein]], Catholic leader

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* Kazin, Michael. ''Barons of labor: The San Francisco building trades and union power in the progressive era'' (U of Illinois Press, 1989).

* Lederhendler, Eli. ''Jewish immigrants and American capitalism, 1880-1920: from caste to class'' (Cambridge UP, 2009) [https://www.academia.edu/download/81738748/9780521730235_frontmatter.pdf online].

* Leon, Carol Boyd. [[doi:10.21916/mlr.2016.5|"The life of American workers in 1915,"]] ''Monthly Labor Review'' (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, February 2016) comparison in many aspects with 2015.

* Montgomery, David. ''The Fall of the House of Labor: The workplace, the state, and American labor activism, 1865–1925'' (1987).

* Muncy, Robyn. ''Creating A Feminine Dominion in American Reform, 1890–1935'' (1991).