Renewable energy in Africa: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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[[File:Sub- Saharan- Africa GHI ~~mid~~Solar-~~size~~resource-map ~~156x192mm-300dpi~~GlobalSolarAtlas ~~v20170928~~World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png|thumb|432x432px|Global Horizontal Irradiation in Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref name="Global Solar Atlas">{{Cite web|url=https://globalsolaratlas.info/|title=Global Solar Atlas~~|website=~~|access-date=6 December 2018}}</ref>]]

The [[developing nations]] of [[Africa]] are popular locations for the application of [[renewable energy]] technology. Currently, many nations already have small-scale solar, wind, and geothermal devices in operation providing energy to urban and rural populations. These types of energy production are especially useful in remote locations because of the excessive cost of transporting electricity from large-scale power plants. The applications of renewable energy technology has the potential to alleviate many of the problems that face Africans every day, especially if done in a [[sustainability|sustainable]] manner that prioritizes human rights.

Access to energy is essential for the reduction of poverty and promotion of [[economic growth]]. [[Communication technologies]], [[education]], [[Industrialisation|industrialization]], agricultural improvement and expansion of municipal water systems all require abundant, reliable, and cost-effective energy access.<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2001/en/ The Human Development Report 2001], United Nations Development Programme</ref>

==Avoiding fossil fuels==

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By investing in the long-term energy solutions that [[alternative energy]] sources afford, most African nations would benefit significantly in the longer term by avoiding the pending economic problems developed countries are currently facing.

Although in many ways [[fossil fuels]] provide a simple, easy to use energy source that powered the industrialization of most modern nations, the issues associated with the widespread use of fossil fuels are now numerous, consisting of some of the world's most difficult and large-scale global political, economic, health and environmental problems.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Role of Fossil Fuels in a Sustainable Energy System|url=https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/role-fossil-fuels-sustainable-energy-system|last=Nations|first=United|website=United Nations|language=en|access-date=2020-05-30}}</ref> The looming [[energy crisis]] results from consuming these fossil fuels at a rate which is unsustainable, with the global demand for fossil fuels expected to increase every year for the next several decades, compounding existing problems.<ref>[http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/1956/1956.pdf Nuclear Energy and the Fossil Fuels] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527233843/http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/1956/1956.pdf |date=27 May 2008 }}, M.K. Hubbert.</ref>

While a great number of projects are currently underway to expand and connect the existing grid networks,<ref>[http://www.eskom.co.za/annreport06/directorrep1.htm Annual Report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007020839/http://www.eskom.co.za/annreport06/directorrep1.htm |date=7 October 2007 }}, Page 2, Eskom (2006)</ref> too many problems exist to make this a realistic option for the vast majority of people in Africa, especially those who live in rural locations. [[Distributed generation]] using renewable energy systems is the only practical solution to meet [[rural electrification]] needs.<ref>[http://www.irn.org/programs/bujagali/index.php?id=010404.ifcbujagali.html Letter to International Finance Corporation], Woicke P. (2000)</ref><ref>[http://www.martinot.info/Reiche_et_al_WP2000.pdf Expanding Electricity Access to Remote Areas: Off Grid Rural Electrification in Developing Countries], Reich et al. (2000)</ref> There is a move towards energy decentralization in African nations, with many looking towards variants of energy decentralization frameworks, such as District Energy Officers, for example as described in a recommendations paper for District Energy Officers for the country of Malawi.<ref>[https://pure.strath.ac.uk/portal/files/67933569/Buckland_etal_2017_Malawi_district_energy_officer_blueprint_recommendations_paper.pdf Malawi District Energy Officer Blueprint: Recommendations Paper], Buckland et al. (2017)</ref>

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==Renewable energy resources==

~~Hydro-electric~~Hydroelectric, wind and solar power all derive their energy from the Sun. The Sun emits more energy in one second (3.827 × 1026 J) than is available in all of the fossil fuels present on earth (3.9 × 1022 J),<ref>Wikipedia article on [[orders of magnitude (energy)]]</ref> and therefore has the potential to provide all of our current and future global energy requirements. Since ~~the~~ solar ~~source~~energy ~~for~~production ~~renewable~~has ~~energy~~no isdirect ~~clean~~emissions and ~~free~~does not require refueling, African nations can protect their people, their environment, and their future economic development by using renewable energy sources<ref>[http://srb.stanford.edu/nur/GP200A%20Papers/zane_jobe_paper.pdf Alternative energy sources for electricity generation: Their 'energy effectiveness' and their viability for undeveloped and developing countries] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613203925/http://srb.stanford.edu/nur/GP200A%20Papers/zane_jobe_paper.pdf |date=13 June 2007 }}, Jobe Z. (2006)</ref> To this end they have a number of possible options.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.civilg8.ru/1226.php|title=Africa urged to reap its alternative energy|website=en.civilg8.ru|access-date=2 April 2019}}</ref> There has been a collaborative effort across Africa to support the development of renewable energy through the [[Africa Renewable Energy Initiative (AREI)]].

===Solar resources===

Africa isreceives the ~~sunniest~~most ~~continent~~sunlight in comparison to all the other continents on Earth, especially as there are many perpetually sunny areas like the huge [[Sahara Desert]].<ref>Louis Boisgibault, Fahad Al Kabbani (2020): [http://www.iste.co.uk/book.php?id=1591 ''Energy Transition in Metropolises, Rural Areas and Deserts'']. [[Wiley - ISTE]]. (Energy series) {{ISBN|9781786304995}}.</ref>

It has much greater solar resources than any other continent. Desert regions stand up as the most sunshiny while rain forests are considerably cloudier but still get a good global solar irradiation because of the proximity with the equator.

It has much greater solar resources than any other continent. Desert regions stand up as the having the most sunlight while rain forests are considerably cloudier but still get a good global [[solar irradiation]] because of the proximity with the equator.

The distribution of solar resources across Africa is fairly uniform, with more than 85% of the continent's landscape receiving at least 2,000 kWh/(m²2 year). A recent study indicates that a solar generating facility covering just 0.3% of the area comprising North Africa could supply all of the energy required by the [[European Union]].<ref>[http://www.trecers.net/downloads/med-csp_en.pdf Report on Solar Power Potential] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927023047/http://www.trecers.net/downloads/med-csp_en.pdf |date=27 September 2007 }}, German Aerospace Center</ref> This is the same land area as the state of [[Maine]].

The Ouarzazate Solar power plant was completed in 2016, in Morocco.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZSDo67E1k3s | title=Morocco turns the Sahara desert into a solar energy oasis | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref>

===Wave and wind resources===

[[File:Global Map of Wind Power Density Potential.png|thumb|421x421px|World map of wind power density.<ref name="Global Wind Atlas">{{Cite web|url=https://globalwindatlas.info/|title=Global Wind Atlas~~|website=~~|access-date=7 December 2018}}</ref>]]

Africa has a large coastline, where [[wind power]] and [[wave power]] resources are abundant and underutilized in the north and south. [[Geothermal power]] has potential to provide considerable amounts of energy in many eastern African nations.<ref name="GeoPotEA">{{Cite web |url=http://www.esi-africa.com/last/esi_2_2003/032_38.htm |title=Geothermal Potential in East Africa |access-date=7 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070619021522/http://www.esi-africa.com/last/esi_2_2003/032_38.htm |archive-date=19 June 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

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===Biomass===

~~The~~Unsustainable use of [[biomass]] fuels endangers [[biodiversity]] and risks further ~~damaged~~damage or destruction to the landscape. 86% of Africa's biomass energy is used in the sub-Saharan region, excluding South Africa.<ref>Energy in Africa, Chapter 7, United States Energy Information Administration {{cite web |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Archives/africa/africa.html |title=U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |~~accessdate~~access-date=16 June 2007 |url-status=dead |~~archiveurl~~archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070616162053/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Archives/africa/africa.html |~~archivedate~~archive-date=16 June 2007 }}</ref> Even where other forms of energy are available, it is not harnessed and utilized efficiently, underscoring the need to promote [[efficient energy use|energy efficiency]] where energy access is available.<ref>[~~http~~https://~~webcache~~web.~~googleusercontent~~archive.~~com~~org/~~search?q=cache:A-DQcygwXJ8J~~web/20060223111649/http://www.nepadst.org/platforms/susenergy.shtml Building a Sustainable Energy Base (NEPAD Platform)]</ref>

~~There~~Biomass obtained in Africa is mainly used for energy through burning, however, there is an urgent need to address the current levels of respiratory illness from burning biomass in ~~the home~~homes. Taking into ~~respect~~consideration the cost differential between ~~the~~ biomass and fossil fuels, it is far more cost-effective to improve the technology used to burn the biomass than to use fossil fuels.<ref>[http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/2005/04.07/11-charcoal.html Benefits of clean fuel in Africa would be enormous], Kevin Myron, Harvard Gazette Archives</ref> Technologies such as [[Gasification]] and [[Anaerobic digestion]] systems are some of the popular systems used to convert biomass fuels to cleaner energy.

===Horizontal integration potential===

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==Finance==

Photo-voltaic panels, wind turbines deep cycle batteries, meters, sockets cables, and connectors are all expensive. Even when the relative difference in buying power, materials cost, [[opportunity cost]], labor cost and overhead is factored in, renewable energy will remain expensive for people who are living on less than US$1 per day. Many rural electrification projects in the past use government subsidies to finance the implementation of rural development programs. It is difficult for rural electrification projects to be accomplished by for-profit companies; in economically impoverished areas these programs must be run at a loss for reasons of practicality.<ref>[http://www.worldbank.org/afr/findings/english/find177.htm Africa Regional Findings (2001) Rural Electrification: Lessons Learned], ''[[World Bank]]''</ref> There are several theorized ways in which specific African nations can rally the resources for such projects.

===Potential funding sources===

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International relief targeted at poverty reduction could also be redirected towards subsidizing renewable energy projects. Because of the integral role that electrification plays in supporting economic and social development, funding of rural electrification can be seen as the core method for addressing poverty. Radios, televisions, telephones, computer networks, and computers all rely on an access to electricity. Because information services allow for the proliferation of education resources, funding the electric backbone to such systems has a derivative effect on their development. In this way, access to communications and education plays a major role in reducing poverty. Additionally, international efforts that supply equipment and services rather than money, are more resistant to resource misappropriation issue that pose problems in less stable governments.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-18864338.html Good intentions: the mismanagement of foreign aid], Heckt J.L (1996)</ref>

[[United Nations Environment Programme|UNEP]] has developed a loan program to stimulate renewable [[energy market]] forces with attractive return rates, buffer initial deployment costs and entice consumers to consider and purchase renewable technology. After a successful ~~[[Indian Solar Loan Programme|~~solar loan program]] sponsored by UNEP that helped 100,000 people finance solar power systems in developing countries like [[Solar power in India|India]],<ref>[http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=504&ArticleID=5562&l=en Solar loan program in India]</ref> UNEP started similar schemes in other parts of the developing world like [[Africa]] – [[Tunisia]], [[Morocco]], and Kenya projects are already functional and many projects in other African nations are in the pipeline.<ref>[http://www.photon-magazine.com/news/news_02-01_af_kenia_pv_loans.htm Solar loan programme, kenya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715163839/http://www.photon-magazine.com/news/news_02-01_af_kenia_pv_loans.htm |date=15 July 2007 }}</ref> In Africa, UNEP assistance to Ghana, Kenya, and Namibia has resulted in the adoption of draft National Climate Awareness Plans, publications in local languages, radio programs and seminars.<ref>[http://www.unep.org/themes/climatechange/About/index.asp UNEP on climate change]</ref> The Rural Energy Enterprise Development (REED) initiative is another flagship UNEP effort focused on enterprise development and seed financing for clean energy entrepreneurs in developing countries of West and Southern Africa.<ref>[http://sefi.unep.org/english/activities/partnerships.html UNEP REED fund] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807054644/http://sefi.unep.org/english/activities/partnerships.html |date=7 August 2007 }}</ref>

The [[Government of South Africa]] has set up the South African Renewables Initiative (SARi)<ref>[https://archive.today/20121225022315/http://www.sari.org.za/ South African Renewables Initiative] www.sari.org.za</ref> to develop a financing arrangement that would enable a critical mass of renewables to be developed in South Africa, through a combination of international loans and grants, as well as domestic funding. This has been a highly successful program now known as the REIPPP (Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Program) with four rounds of allocations already completed. In Round 1, 19 projects were allocated, in Round 2, 28 projects were allocated, in Round 3, 17 projects were allocated and in Round 4, 26 projects were allocated. Over 6100MW has been allocated with a total of R194 billion (US$16 billion) being invested in this program. It is important to note that this investment figure represents full funding from private entities and banks – there are no government subsidies for this program.

===Energy sector regulators as facilitators===

The funding of renewable energy (RE) projects is dependent on the credibility of the institutions developing and implementing RE policy. This places a particular burden on the energy regulators in Africa, whose professional staff may be few in number and who have track records of only a decade or so. Rules (micro policies) made by regulators are subsidiary to overall government RE policy and depend on some delegation of authority from the state. Nevertheless, there are instances when the sector regulator can pro-active on behalf of customer and utility concerns—providing facts, reports, and public statements that build a case for care in the design of public policy towards RE. Clean and renewable energy is likely to be of concern to a number of organizations. Interaction between multiple authorities requires coordination to align policies, incentives, and administrative processes (including licensing and permitting). Of course, the making of policy by regulators is incidental to and inherent in their duty to decide specific cases or disputes. This micro policy-making role is derived from the fact that macro RE policy cannot reasonably be expected to anticipate all aspects of policy that will have to evolve for the regulatory process to be fully functional. This point is particularly important in the area of renewable energy, with its rapidly changing technologies and ever-changing public (and political) attitudes. Gaps will have to be filled and it is the regulators, with their functional responsibilities, technical expertise, and hands-on experience that are best positioned to accomplish that task in developing countries. Thus, for designing auctions for purchasing power, for establishing feed-in tariffs, or other instruments promoting RE, the energy sector regulator has a significant impact on the penetration of RE in Africa and other regions.<ref name="PURC">Frequently Asked Questions on Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency, Body of Knowledge on Infrastructure Regulation, [http://regulationbodyofknowledge.org/renewable-energy-and-energy-efficiency/]</ref>

=== Investments ===

Africa has historically received less than 2% of global investments in renewable energy over the past two decades, leading to inadequate energy access for three-quarters of its population. In response, the [https://www.irena.org/News/pressreleases/2023/Dec/Heads-of-State-Accelerate-the-Partnership-for-Renewables-in-Africa-at-COP28 Accelerated Partnership for Renewables in Africa] (APRA) was launched at [[2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference|COP28]], following the Nairobi Declaration on Climate Change.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Nations |first=United |title=Nairobi Declaration makes strong push for accelerated climate action and financing mechanisms |url=https://www.un.org/en/information-center-nairobi/nairobi-declaration-makes-strong-push-accelerated-climate-action-and |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=United Nations |language=en}}</ref> This initiative aims to dramatically increase Africa's renewable energy capacity from 56 GW in 2022 to 300 GW by 2030. APRA focuses on mobilizing finance, engaging the private sector, and providing targeted assistance to tailor energy solutions to the specific needs of African nations, thereby driving transformative change and promoting sustainable economic growth across the continent.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mwenda |first=Kenneth |date=2023-09-14 |title=Unlocking the potential of renewable energy production in Africa |url=https://constructionreviewonline.com/commentary/unlocking-the-potential-of-renewable-energy-production-in-africa/ |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=Constructionreview |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-02 |title=Heads of State Accelerate the Partnership for Renewables in Africa at COP28 |url=https://www.irena.org/News/pressreleases/2023/Dec/Heads-of-State-Accelerate-the-Partnership-for-Renewables-in-Africa-at-COP28 |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=www.irena.org |language=en}}</ref>

==Renewable energy use==

===Solar power===

[[File:Sub- Saharan- Africa GHI ~~mid~~Solar-~~size~~resource-map ~~156x192mm-300dpi~~GlobalSolarAtlas ~~v20170928~~World-Bank-Esmap-Solargis.png|alt=|thumb|391x391px|Global Horizontal Irradiation in Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://globalsolaratlas.info/|title=Global Solar Atlas~~|website=~~|access-date=7 December 2018}}</ref>]]

Several large-scale solar power facilities are under development in Africa including projects in [[South Africa]] and [[Algeria]].<ref>Nji, Renatus. 2006. What alternatives to oil in Africa? ''Africa Renewal.'' Vol.20. p. 17.</ref> Although solar power technology has the potential to supply energy to large numbers of people, and has been used to generate power on a large scale in developed nations, its greatest potential in Africa may be to provide power on a smaller scale and to use this energy to help with day-to-day needs such as small-scale electrification, [[desalination]], [[water pumping]], and [[water purification]].

The first utility-scale solar farm in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] is the 8.5MW plant at Agahozo-Shalom Youth Village, in the [[Rwamagana District]], Eastern Province of [[Rwanda]]. It leased {{convert|20|hectare|acre}} of land from the village which is a charity to house and educate [[Rwandan genocide]] victims. The plant uses 28,360 [[photovoltaic panel]]s and produces 6% of total electrical supply of the country. The project was built with U.S., Israeli, Dutch, Norwegian, Finnish and UK funding and expertise.<ref>[http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/New-Tech/In-Rwanda-Israelis-and-Americans-launch-East-Africas-first-commercial-solar-field-390197 In Rwanda, Israelis and Americans launch East Africa’s first commercial solar field], ''~~Jeruslaem~~Jerusalem Post'', 6 February 2015</ref>

There are several examples of small grid-linked solar power stations in Africa, including the [[photovoltaic]] 250 kW [[Kigali Solaire]] station in Rwanda.<ref>{{Cite web

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| year = 2007

| url = http://www.gtz.de/en/presse/21738.htm

| ~~accessdate~~access-date = 22 March 2010 }}</ref> Under the South Africa Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer Procurement Program,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ipprenewables.co.za/ |title=~~Archived~~IPP ~~copy~~Renewables |~~accessdate~~access-date=17 August 2013 |url-status=dead |~~archiveurl~~archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130809004400/http://www.ipprenewables.co.za/ |~~archivedate~~archive-date=9 August 2013 }}</ref> several projects have been developed, including the 96MW(DC) [[Jasper Solar Energy Project]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.solarreserve.com/what-we-do/pv-development/jasper/ |title=~~Archived~~Jasper PV Project | ~~copy~~SolarReserve |~~accessdate~~access-date=17 August 2013 |url-status=dead |~~archiveurl~~archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130807224749/http://www.solarreserve.com/what-we-do/pv-development/jasper/ |~~archivedate~~archive-date=7 August 2013 }}</ref> the 75MW(DC) Lesedi PV project,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.solarreserve.com/what-we-do/pv-development/lesedi/ |title=~~Archived~~Lesedi PV Project | ~~copy~~SolarReserve |~~accessdate~~access-date=12 January 2015 |url-status=dead |~~archiveurl~~archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118072118/http://www.solarreserve.com/what-we-do/pv-development/lesedi/ |~~archivedate~~archive-date=18 January 2015 }}</ref> and the 75MW(DC) Letsatsi PV Project,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.solarreserve.com/what-we-do/pv-development/letsatsi/ |title=~~Archived~~Letsatsi ~~copy~~PV Project | SolarReserve |~~accessdate~~access-date=12 January 2015 |url-status=dead |~~archiveurl~~archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150107033038/http://www.solarreserve.com/what-we-do/pv-development/letsatsi/ |~~archivedate~~archive-date=7 January 2015 }}</ref> all developed by the American company [[SolarReserve]] and completed in 2014.

[[Power Up Gambia]], a non-profit operating in [[The Gambia]], uses solar power technology to provide power to Gambian health care facilities, providing a reliable source of electricity for lighting, diagnostic testing, treatments, and water pumping.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.powerupgambia.org/about_mission.php |title=~~Archived~~Power ~~copy~~up Gambia |access-date=18 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408193951/http://www.powerupgambia.org/about_mission.php |archive-date=8 April 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[[Power Up Gambia]]</ref> [[Energy For Opportunity (EFO)]], a non-profit working in West Africa, uses solar power for Schools, Health Clinics and Community Charging Stations, as well as teaches Photovoltaic installation classes at local technical institutes. So far its work has been mainly in [[Sierra Leone]].<ref name="EFO Annual Report">{{cite web | url=http://www.energyforopportunity.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/EFO-Annual-Report-2010.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814231014/http://www.energyforopportunity.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/02/EFO-Annual-Report-2010.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=14 August 2020 | date=2011 | title=Energy For Opportunity: Annual Report 2010 | publisher=EFO: Sierra Leone | author=Energy For Opportunity ~~}}{{dead link|date=April 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes~~ }}</ref> In particular its solar powered Community Charging Stations have been recognized as an innovative model to provide electricity to rural communities in the region.<ref name="Emerging Forms of Entrepreneurship: For-Profit and Non-Profit Partnerships for the Dissemination of Solar Power into Rural Sub-Saharan Africa">{{cite web| url=http://www.icsb2011.org/download/18.62efe22412f41132d41800011980/690.pdf |date =2011|title=Emerging Forms of Entrepreneurship: For-Profit and Non-Profit Partnerships for the Dissemination of Solar Power into Rural Sub-Saharan Africa |publisher=Paper presented at the 56th Annual ICSB World Conference: Sweden| author= Simon Willans, Amé Christiansen and Paul Munro}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal

| last1 = Kemeny

| first1 = P

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Some plans exist to build solar farms in the deserts of North Africa to supply power for Europe. The [[Desertec]] project, backed by several European energy companies and banks, planned to generate renewable electricity in the [[Sahara]] desert and distribute it through a high-voltage grid for export to Europe and local consumption in North-Africa. Ambitions seek to provide continental Europe with up to 15% of its electricity. The [[TuNur project]] would supply 2GW of solar generated electricity from [[Tunisia]] to the UK.

In the Eastern and Southern Africa region, solar power has been identified as a key component in addressing the energy access deficit. The region's abundant sunlight offers a significant potential for solar energy to be harnessed, contributing to sustainable economic growth. By 2050, [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] is estimated to require around 3 billion tons of minerals and metals to support the deployment of solar energy among other renewable resources.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Transforming Lives Through Energy Access in Eastern and Southern Africa |url=https://projects.worldbank.org/en/results/2023/11/21/transforming-lives-through-energy-access-afe-1123-in-eastern-and-southern-africa |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=World Bank |language=en}}</ref>

===Solar water pumping===

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The Solar Water Purifier, developed and manufactured by an Australian company, is a low-maintenance, low operational cost solution that is able to purify large amounts of water, even seawater, to levels better than human consumption standards set by the [[World Health Organization]].<ref>[http://www.solarwaterpurifier.com/html/howworks.htm How SWP Works], Solar Water Purifier website, 2007</ref> This device works through the processes of [[evaporation]] and [[UV radiation]]. Light passes through the top layer of glass to the black plastic layer underneath. Heat from the solar radiation is trapped by the water and by the black plastic. This plastic layer is a series of connected troughs that separate the water as it evaporates and trickles down through the levels. The water is also subjected to UV radiation for an extended period of time as it moves through the device, which kills many bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens. In a sunny, equatorial area like much of Africa, this device is capable of purifying up to 45 liters per day from a single array. Additional arrays may be chained together for more capacity.

The Water School uses SODIS solar disinfection currently in target areas of Kenya and Uganda to help people drink water free of pathogens and disease causing bacteria. SODIS is a UV process that kills microorganisms in the water to prevent water borne disease. The science of the SODIS system is proven with over 20 years of research.<ref>{{Cite web|title=solar disinfection sodis: Topics by Science.gov|url=https://www.science.gov/topicpages/s/solar+disinfection+sodis.html|website=www.science.gov|language=en|access-date=2020-05-30}}</ref>

===Wind power===

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The [[Koudia Al Baida Farm]] in Morocco, is the largest wind farm in the continent. Two other large wind farms are under construction in [[Tangier]] and [[Tarfaya]].

Kenya is building a wind farm, the [[Lake Turkana Wind Power (LTWP)]], in [[Marsabit County]]. As Africa's largest wind farm, the project will increase the national electricity supply while creating jobs and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. LTWP is planned to produce 310 MW of wind power at full capacity.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ledsgp.org/resource/leds-practice-benefits-leds/?loclang=en_gb|title=LEDS in practice: Massive wind power project to benefit Kenya|publisher=[[Low Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership (LEDS GP)]]|~~accessdate~~access-date=12 July 2017}}</ref>

<ref name="LTWPKenya">{{Cite web|url=https://ltwp.co.ke/|title=Lake Turkana Wind Power – LTWP|language=en-US|access-date=2 April 2019}}</ref>

In January 2009, the first [[wind turbine]] in West Africa was erected in [[Batokunku]], a village in [[The Gambia]]. The 150 kilowatt turbine provides electrical power for the 2,000-person village.<ref>{{Cite news| author =Dierk Jensen | title =A Second Life in Africa | publisher =New Energy Magazine |date = March 2009| url = http://indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/333498/a-second-life-in-africa/| ~~accessdate~~access-date=24 June 2009}}</ref>

The South African REIPPP has resulted in several wind farms already in commercial operation in the country. These wind farms are currently in operation in the provinces of the Eastern, Northern and Western Cape. It is estimated that 10 farms are already under construction or in operation, with 12 more being approved with the 4th Round of the REIPPP.

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===Geothermal power===

So far, only Kenya has exploited the geothermal potential of the [[Great Rift Valley, Kenya|Great Rift Valley]].<ref name="GeoPotEA" /> Kenya has been estimated to contain 10,000 MWe of potential geothermal energy,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://en.ccchina.gov.cn/Detail.aspx?newsId=38323&TId=97 |title=~~Archived~~China ~~copy~~Climate Change Info-Net |access-date=6 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105071350/http://en.ccchina.gov.cn/Detail.aspx?newsId=38323&TId=97 |archive-date=5 November 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and has twenty potential drilling sites marked for survey in addition to three operational geothermal plants.<ref name="IGA1">{{cite web |url=http://iga.igg.cnr.it/geoworld/geoworld.php?sub=map&country=kenya |title=~~Archived~~IGA ~~copy~~International Geothermal Association |~~accessdate~~access-date=29 December 2008 |url-status=dead |~~archiveurl~~archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210032039/http://iga.igg.cnr.it/geoworld/geoworld.php?sub=map&country=kenya |~~archivedate~~archive-date=10 December 2007 }}, International Geothermal Association</ref> Kenya was the first country in Africa to adopt geothermal energy, in 1956, and houses the largest geothermal power plant on the continent, [[Olkaria II Geothermal Power Station|Olkaria II]], operated by Kengen, who also operate [[Olkaria I Geothermal Power Station|Olkaria I]]. A further plant, [[Olkaria III Geothermal Power Station|Olkaria III]], is privately owned and operated.<ref name="IGA1" /><ref name="GeoPotKenya">[http://ttclear.unfccc.int/ttclear/presentations/Kenya/geo.pdf Geothermal Potential in Kenya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070612100636/http://ttclear.unfccc.int/ttclear/presentations/Kenya/geo.pdf |date=12 June 2007 }}</ref>

Ethiopia is home to a single binary-cycle plant but does not utilize its full potential energy output for lack of experience in its operation.<ref name="GeoPotEA" /> Zambia has several sites planned for construction but their projects have stalled due to lack of funds.<ref name="GeoPotEA" /> Eritrea, Djibouti and Uganda have undertaken preliminary exploration for potential geothermal sources but have not constructed any type of power plant.<ref name="GeoPotEA" />

[[File:Three-quarters_of_respondents_in_Africa_and_the_Middle_East_agree_that_their_countries_should_focus_on_developing_renewable_energy.png|thumb|Three-quarters of respondents in Africa and the Middle East in a 2022 survey agree that their countries should focus on developing renewable energy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230098-eib-climate-survey-africa-and-middle-east |title=The EIB Climate Survey: Africa and the Middle East |date=2023-06-05 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5534-5 |language=EN}}</ref>]]

Geothermal power has been used in agricultural projects in Africa. The [[Oserian]] flower farm in Kenya utilizes several steam wells abandoned by Kengen to power its greenhouse. In addition, the heat involved in the geothermal process is used to maintain stable greenhouse temperatures. The heat can also be utilized in cooking, which would help eliminate the dependence on wood burning.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4473111.stm Kenya Looks Underground for Power], ''[[BBC]]''</ref>

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==See also==

* [[List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions]]

* [[Mains electricity by country]]

*[[List of energy storage projects]]▼

* [[Great Green Wall (China)]]

*[[List of renewable energy topics by country]]▼

▲* [[List of energy storage projects]]

*[[REN21]]▼

▲* [[List of renewable energy topics by country]]

*[[Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership]]

▲* [[REN21]]

*[[Renewable energy commercialization]]▼

* [[Renewable ~~energy~~Energy and Energy inEfficiency ~~Asia~~Partnership]]

▲* [[Renewable energy commercialization]]

* [[~~Category:~~Renewable energy in ~~Africa~~Asia]]▼

==References==

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[[Category:Renewable energy in Africa| ]]

[[Category:International development in Africa]]

[[Category:Energy in Africa]]

▲[[Category:Renewable energy in Africa]]