Safavid dynasty: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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[[Image:LocationSafavid.PNG|right|frame|The Safavid Empire at its [[1512]] borders.]]

{{History of Greater Iran}}

The '''Safavid dynasty''' ({{PerB|صفویان}}1501-1722) waswere an [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]-speaking [[Shi’a]] [[dynasty]] that ruled the [[History of Iran|Iranian Empireempire]] from 1501 to 1722.<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v13f3/v13f3004a.html Encyclopaedia Iranica. R. N. Frye. Peoples of Iran.]</ref> The Safavids were [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]-speaking andThey originated in [[Ardabil]], a city located in the [[Iranian Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] region ofin [[Iran]]., Theyand created the greatest Iranian Empireempire<ref>Andrew J. Newman, Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire, I. B. Tauris (March 30, 2006) </ref> since the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]],. andThe Safavids established the Ithnāˤashari (''[[Twelvers|Ithnāˤashari school]]'') school of [[Imamah (Shi'a twelver doctrine)|Shi'a Islam]]<ref name="savoryeiref"> R.M. Savory, ''Safavids'', [[Encyclopedia of Islam]], 2nd edition</ref> as the official [[religion]] of their empire. They alsoand reasserted the [[Iranian culture|Iranian identity]] of the region<ref>''...reasserted Iranian identity and established an independent Iranian state after eight and a half centuries of rule by foreign dynasties ...'' in R.M. Savory, Iran under the Safavids (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1980), page 3</ref>, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the [[Sassanids]] to establish a united Iranian state. Despite their demise in 1722, the Safavids have left their mark down to present era by spreading and establishing Shi'a Islam in major parts of the [[Caucasus]] and West Asia, especially in Iran.

==Background==

==Origins: The Sufi order at Ardabil==

{{main|Safi al-Din}}

Unlike with many other dynasties founded by warlords and military chiefs, one of the unique aspects of the Safavids in the post-Islamic Iran was their origin in the Islamic [[Sufi]] order called the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh]]. This uniqueness makes the Safavid dynasty comparable to the pre-Islamic [[Sassanid]] dynasty, which made Zoroastrianism into an official religion, and whose founders were from a priestly class. The origins of the Safavid family are shrouded in a mystery, and the contemporary lack of broad knowledge about them is compounded by the ideological distortions which took place during their political reign.▼

The Safavid history begins with the establishment of the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh Sufi Order]] by its eponymous founder [[Safi_al-Din|Safī al-Dīn Abdul Fath Is'haq Ardabilī]] (1252-1334). In 700/1301, Safī al-Dīn assumed the leadership of a local [[Sufi]] order in Gilan from his spiritual master Sheikh Zahid Gilani who was also his father-in-law. Due to the great spiritual charisma of Sheikh Safī al-Dīn, from then on, the order was known as the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh]]. Safi ud-Din's origin is not known, but according to some classical sources, he was probably of Kurdish descent<ref>See Safavids in Emeri van Donzel, Islamic Desk Reference compiled from the Encyclopedia of Islam, E.J. Brill, 1994, pg 381</ref><ref> [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f1/v8f1010.html R.M. Savory. Ebn Bazzaz. Encyclopedia Iranica]</ref>. Extant religious poetry from him, written in [[Ancient Azari language|Old Tati]]<ref name=Safi>[[Ehsan Yarshater|E. Yarshater]], [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], [http://www.iranica.com/articles/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v3_articles/azerbaijan/language_azerbaijan&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Book 1, p. 240]:</ref><ref name=Yar>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v3f3/v3f2a88b.html E. Yarshater, Encyclopaedia Iranica, The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan]</ref> - a now distinct [[Iranian languages|Northwestern Iranian language]]<ref name=Yar /> - and accompanied by a paraphrase in Persian which helps their understanding, has survived to this day and has linguistic importance.▼

▲Unlike with many other dynasties founded by warlords and military chiefs, one of the unique aspects of the Safavids in the post-Islamic Iran was their origin in the Islamic [[Sufi]] order called the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh]]. This uniqueness makes the Safavid dynasty comparable to the pre-Islamic [[Sassanid]] dynasty, which made Zoroastrianism into an official religion, and whose founders were from a priestly class. The origins of the Safavid family are shrouded in a mystery, and the contemporary lack of broad knowledge about them is compounded by the ideological distortions which took place during their political reign.

Nevertheless, even before their ascent to political power in the 15th century, the Safavids had become Turkic-speaking and used [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani Turkish]] as a medium of communication with their followers <ref>E. Yarshater ''Iran: The Safavid period'', Encyclopedia Iranica, [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v13f3/v13f3001d.html]</ref>

▲The Safavid history begins with the establishment of the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh Sufi Order]] by its eponymous founder [[Safi_al-Din|Safī al-Dīn Abdul Fath Is'haq Ardabilī]] (1252-1334). In 700/1301, Safī[[Safi al-DīnDin]] assumed the leadership of a local [[Sufi]] order in Gilan from his spiritual master Sheikh Zahid Gilani who was also his father-in-law. Due to the great spiritual charisma of Sheikh Safī[[Safi al-DīnDin]], from then on, the order was known as the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh]]. SafiSome ud-Din'ssources originhave ismentioned notthat known,Sheikh but[[Safi according to some classical sources, heal-Din]] was probably of Kurdish descent <ref>See Safavids in Emeri van Donzel, Islamic Desk Reference compiled from the Encyclopedia of Islam, E.J. Brill, 1994, pg 381</ref><ref> [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f1/v8f1010.html R.M. Savory. Ebn Bazzaz. Encyclopedia Iranica]</ref>. Extant religious poetry from him, writtenhave been recorded in [[Ancient Azari language|Old Tati]] language <ref name=Safi>[[Ehsan Yarshater|E. Yarshater]], [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]], [http://www.iranica.com/articles/search/searchpdf.isc?ReqStrPDFPath=/home1/iranica/articles/v3_articles/azerbaijan/language_azerbaijan&OptStrLogFile=/home/iranica/public_html/logs/pdfdownload.html Book 1, p. 240]:</ref><ref name=Yar>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v3f3/v3f2a88b.html E. Yarshater, Encyclopaedia Iranica, The Iranian Language of Azerbaijan]</ref> - a now distinct [[Iranian languages|Northwestern Iranian language]]. Nevertheless, even before their ascent to political power in the 15th century, the Safavid family <ref name=YarSafi /> - had become Turkic-speaking and accompaniedused by[[Azerbaijani alanguage|Azerbaijani paraphraseTurkish]] inas Persiana medium of whichcommunication helpswith their understanding,followers has<ref>E. survivedYarshater to''Iran: thisThe daySafavid andperiod'' has, linguisticEncyclopedia importanceIranica, [http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v13f3/v13f3001d.html]</ref>

== From Sheikh Safi al-Din to Ismail I ==

After Safī[[Safi al-DīnDin|Sheikh Safi al-Din Ardabili]], the leadership of the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh]] passed onto Sheikh Sadr udal-DīnDin MūsāMusa († 794/1391-92). The order at this time was transformed into a religious movement which conducted religious propaganda throughout Persia, Syria and Asia Minor,. andStill the order most likely had maintained its Sunni Shaf’ite origin at that time. The leadership of the order passed on from Sheikh Sadr udal-DīnDin MūsāMusa to his son KhwādjaKhwadja Ali († 1429) and in turn to his son IbrāhīmIbrahim († 1429-47).

When Sheikh JunāydJunayd, the son of IbrāhīmIbrahim, assumed the leadership of [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh]] in 1447, the history of the Safavid movement was radically changed. According to R.M. Savory, ''"Sheikh Junayd was not content with spiritual authority and he sought material power"''. At that time, the most powerful dynasty in Persia was that of thewere the [[Kara Koyunlu|Qara Qoyunlu]], the "Black Sheeps", whose ruler [[Jahan Shah|Jahān Shāh]] ordered JunāydSheikh Junayd to leave [[Ardabil]] or else he would bring destruction and ruin upon the city. <ref name="savoryeiref" />. JunāydJunayd sought refuge with the rival of [[Kara Koyunlu|Qara Qoyunlu]] [[Jahan Shah]], the [[Ak Koyunlu|Aq Qoyunlu]] [[Khan]] [[Uzun Hassan]] and cemented his relationship by marrying Khadija Begum, the sister of [[Uzun Hassan]]'s sister. JunāydSheikh Junayd was killed during an incursion into the territories of the [[Shirvanshah|Shīrvanshāhs]]s and his son Sheikh Haydar assumed the leadership of the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh]]. Sheikh Haydar married Martha <ref>Anthony Bryer. "Greeks and Türkmens: The Pontic Exception", ''Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 29.'', (1975), Appendix II - Genealogy of the Muslim Marriages of the Princesses of Trebizond</ref>, the daughter of [[Uzun Hassan]]'s daughter, who gave birth to future [[Shah Ismail I|Ismāil]],. theMartha founderhad ofa thePontic Safavid dynasty. Martha'sGreek mother, named Theodora -, better known as Despina KhatunHatun <ref>Peter Charanis. "Review of Emile Janssens' ''Trébizonde en Colchide''", ''Speculum, Vol. 45, No. 3,'', (Jul., 1970), p. 476</ref> - was a [[Pontic Greek]] princess and, the daughter of the Grand [[Komnenos]] [[John IV of Trebizond]]., Shewhom had[[Uzun beenHassan]] married to Uzun Hassan<ref>Anthony Bryer, ''open citation'', p. 136</ref> in exchange to protection of the Grand Komnenos from the Ottomans.

After [[Uzun Hassan]]'s death, his son YāqubYaqub felt threatened by the growing Safavid religious influence. YāqubYaqub allied himself with the Shīrvanshāh[[Shirvanshah]] and killed Shaykh Haydar in 1488. By this time, the bulk of the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh]] followers were Turkish-speaking clans from Asia Minor and [[Iranian Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]], and were collectively known as [[Qizilbash|Qizilbāsh]] (''"Red Heads"'') because offor their distinct red headgear. The Qizilbāsh[[Qizilbash]] were warriors, spiritual followers of Sheikh Haydar, and a source of the Safavid military and political power. After the death of Haydar, the spiritual followers of the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safaviyeh]] gathered around his son Ali, who was also pursued and subsequently killed by YāqubYaqub. According to the official Safavid history, before passing away, Ali had designated hisIsmail, younghis brother Ismāiland the son of Shaykh Haydar as the spiritual leader of the [[Safaviya (sufi order)|Safavid Order]] <ref name="savoryeiref" />.

==Founding of the dynasty by ShāhShah IsmāilIsmail I==

{{main|Ismail I}}

The Safavid ruling dynasty was founded by Ismāil, from now known as [[Shah Ismail I|Shāh Ismāil I.]] <ref name="ismailsafaviiranica">[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f6/v8f665.html Encyclopedia Iranica. ''ٍIsmail Safavi'']</ref>. An ethnic [[Azerbaijani people|Azeri]], IsmāilIsmail was of mixed [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]], [[Iranian peoples|Iranic]], and [[Pontic Greeks|Pontik Greek]] descent <ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v13f3/v13f3004a.html Encyclopaedia Iranica. R. N. Frye. Peoples of Iran.]</ref>, and was a direct descendant of [[Safi al-Din|Sheikh Safi al-Din]]. As such, he was the last in the line of hereditary Grand Masters of the Safaviyeh[[Safaviya oder(sufi order)|Safaviyeh]], prior to its ascent to a ruling dynasty. IsmāilIsmail was a brave and charismatic youth, zealous with regards to his [[Shi’a]] faith, and believed himself to be of divine descent. Practically worshipped by his [[Qizilbash|Qizilbāsh]] tribal followers, IsmāilIsmail invaded Shirvan and avenged the death of his father. Afterwards, he went on a conquest campaign, capturing [[Tabriz]] in July 1501, where he enthroned himself the ShāhShah of Azerbaijan <ref>Richard Tapper. "Shahsevan in Safavid Persia", ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies'', University of London, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1974, p. 324</ref><ref>Lawrence Davidson, Arthur Goldschmid, "A Concise History of the Middle East", Westview Press, 2006, p. 153</ref> and minted coins in his name, and proclaimingproclaimed Shi’ism the official religion of his domain <ref name="savoryeiref" />. Although initially, the masters of Azerbaijan only, the Safavids had, in fact, won the struggle for power in Persia which had been going on for nearly a century between various dynasties and political forces. A year after his victory in [[Tabriz]], IsmāilIsmail proclaimed most of Persia as his domain <ref name="savoryeiref" />, and within 10 years established a complete control over all of it, showing extraordinary valor in battle. Ismāil Ismail continued to expand his territory adding [[Hamadan]] in 1503, [[Shiraz, Iran|Shiraz]] and [[Kerman]] in 1504, [[Najaf]] and [[Karbala]] in [[1507]], [[Van]] in 1508, [[Baghdad]] in 1509, and [[HeratKhorasan]], as well as other parts ofand [[Greater Khorasan|KhorasanHerat]], in 1510. By 1511, the [[Uzbeks]] in the north-east, led by their Khan [[Muhammad Shaybani|Muhammad Shaybāni]], were driven across the [[Oxus River]] where they continued to attack the Safavids. His decisive victory over the Uzbeks, whowhich had occupied most of Khorasan, ensured Iran’s eastern borders and the Uzbeks never since expanded beyond theAfghanistan. [[Hindukush]]. Although the Uzbeks continued to make occasional raids to Khorasan, the Safavid empire throughout their whole reign was able to keep them at bay. In 1507, the Portuguese invaded the [[Persian Gulf]] and captured the island of [[Hormuz]]. It became a Portuguese naval base and trade outpost, which lasted more than a hundred years until the reign of ShāhShah AbbāsAbbas I. The Iranian state lacked a navy at the time of Ismāil,Ismail I and thus ShāhShah IsmāilIsmail was forcedhad to accept this European presence.

More problematic for the Safavids waswere the powerful [[Ottoman Empire]] empire. The Ottomans, a [[Sunni]] dynasty, considered the active recruitment of Turkmen tribes of Anatolia for the Safavid cause as a major threat. To counter the rising Safavid power, Sultan Bayazid in 907-8/1502 forcefully deported many Shi'asites from Anatolia, towho otherended partsup ofin the OttomanSafavid realmdomain. In 1514, Bayazid's son, Sultan [[Selim I]] the Grim marched through Anatolia and reached the plain of Chaldiran near the city of [[Khoy]], and a decisive war was fought there. Most sources agree that the Ottoman army was at least double the size of that of IsmāilIsmail <ref name="ismailsafaviiranica" />. What gave the Ottomans the advantage was the artillery which the Safavid army lacked. According to R. M. Savory, ''"Salim's plan was to winter at Tabriz and complete the conquest of Persia the following spring. However, a mutiny among his officers who refused to spend the winter at Tabriz forced him to withdraw across territory laid waste by the Safavid forces, eight days later"'' <ref name="ismailsafaviiranica" />. Although Ismāil[[Shah Ismail I]] was defeated and his capital was captured, the Safavid empire survived. The war between the two powers continued under Ismāil's son,Shah [[Tahmasp I|Shāh Tahmāsp I]] (q.v.), and the Ottoman Sultan [[Suleiman I]], until Shāh[[Shah AbbāsAbbas (q.v.)I]] retook the area lost to the Ottomans by 1602. ▼

==== Clashes with the Ottomans ====

{{main|Battle of Chaldiran|Qizilbash}}

TheBut the consequences of the defeat at Chaldiran were also psychological for IsmāilIsmail: the defeat destroyed IsmāilIsmail's belief in his invincibility, based on his claimed divine status <ref name="savoryeiref" />. His relationships with his Qizilbāsh[[Qizilbash]] followers were also fundamentally altered. The tribal rivalries between the Qizilbāsh[[Qizilbash]] tribes, which temporarily ceased before the defeat at Chaldiran, resurfaced in intense form immediately after the death of IsmāilIsmail, and led to ten years of civil war (930-40/1524-33) until ShāhShah TahmāspTahmasp regained control of the affairs of the state. ▼

▲More problematic for the Safavids was the powerful [[Ottoman Empire]]. The Ottomans, a [[Sunni]] dynasty, considered the active recruitment of Turkmen tribes of Anatolia for the Safavid cause as a major threat. To counter the rising Safavid power, Sultan Bayazid in 907-8/1502 forcefully deported many Shi'as from Anatolia to other parts of the Ottoman realm. In 1514, Bayazid's son, Sultan [[Selim I]] marched through Anatolia and reached the plain of Chaldiran near the city of [[Khoy]], and a decisive war was fought there. Most sources agree that the Ottoman army was at least double the size of that of Ismāil<ref name="ismailsafaviiranica" />. What gave the Ottomans the advantage was the artillery which the Safavid army lacked. According to R. M. Savory, ''"Salim's plan was to winter at Tabriz and complete the conquest of Persia the following spring. However, a mutiny among his officers who refused to spend the winter at Tabriz forced him to withdraw across territory laid waste by the Safavid forces, eight days later"''<ref name="ismailsafaviiranica" />. Although Ismāil was defeated and his capital was captured, the Safavid empire survived. The war between the two powers continued under Ismāil's son, [[Tahmasp I|Shāh Tahmāsp I]] (q.v.), and the Ottoman Sultan [[Suleiman I]], until Shāh Abbās (q.v.) retook the area lost to the Ottomans by 1602.

Early Safavid power in Iran was based on the military power of the[[Qizilbash]] Qizilbāshtribes. IsmāilIsmail exploited the first element to seize power in Iran. But eschewing politics after his defeat in Chaldiran, he[[Shah Ismail I]] left the affairs of the government to the office of the Wakīl (q.v.)Wakil. IsmāilIsmail's successors, and most ostensibly ShāhShah Abbās[[Abbas I of Persia|Abbas I]] successfully diminished the Qizilbāsh's[[Qizilbash]] influence on the affairs of the state.▼

▲The consequences of the defeat at Chaldiran were also psychological for Ismāil: the defeat destroyed Ismāil's belief in his invincibility, based on his claimed divine status<ref name="savoryeiref" />. His relationships with his Qizilbāsh followers were also fundamentally altered. The tribal rivalries between the Qizilbāsh, which temporarily ceased before the defeat at Chaldiran, resurfaced in intense form immediately after the death of Ismāil, and led to ten years of civil war (930-40/1524-33) until Shāh Tahmāsp regained control of the affairs of the state.

▲Early Safavid power in Iran was based on the military power of the Qizilbāsh. Ismāil exploited the first element to seize power in Iran. But eschewing politics after his defeat in Chaldiran, he left the affairs of the government to the office of the Wakīl (q.v.). Ismāil's successors, and most ostensibly Shāh Abbās I successfully diminished the Qizilbāsh's influence on the affairs of the state.

==== Ismāil's poetry ====

IsmāilIsmail is also known for his poetry using the pen-name KhatāīKhatai (Arabic خطائی: sinner) <ref name="ismailsafaviiranica" />. He is considered an important figure in the literary history of [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] and has left approximately 1400 verses in this language. Approximately 50 verses of his [[Persian poetry]] have also survived. According to [[EncyclopædiaEncyclopedia Iranica]], ''"Ismail was a skillful poet who used prevalent themes and images in lyric and didactic-religious poetry with ease and some degree of originality".''. He Ismail was also deeply influenced by the [[Persian literature|Persianculture literary tradition]] of Iran,and particularly bywith the "[[Shahnameh|Shāhnāma]]" of [[Ferdowsi]], which probably explains the fact that he named all of his sons after Shāhnāma-the [[Shahnameh]] characters. Dickson and Welch suggest that Ismāil'sthe "ShāhnāmayeShah-Nama-yi Shāhī"Shahi was intended as a present from Ismail I to the young Tahmāsp[[Shah Tahmasp|Tahmasp]] <ref>M.B. Dickson and S.C. Welch, ''The Houghton Shahnameh'' 2 vols (Cambridge Mmssachusetts and London. 1981. See: pg 34 of Volume I)</ref>. After defeating Muhammadthe Shaybāni's UzbeksShaybanids, IsmāilIsmail asked HātefīHatefi, a famous poet fromin [[Ghor Province|Jam, (Khorasan)]], to write a Shāhnāma[[Shahnameh]]-like epic about his victories and his newly established dynasty. Although the epic was left unfinished, it was an example of ''[[mathnawi]]s''mathnawis in the heroic style of the Shāhnāma[[Shahnameh]] written later on for the Safavid kings <ref name="savoryeiref" />.

==== Legacy ====

IsmāilIsmail's greatest legacy established an enduring empire which lasted over 200 years. Even after the fall of Safavids in 1722, their cultural and political influencelegacy endured through the era of [[AfsharidNader dynastyShah|AfsharidNader Shah Afshar]], and [[Zand dynasty|Zand]], [[Qajar]], and [[Pahlavi dynasty|Pahlavi]] dynasties into the modern [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], where [[Shi’a|Shi’a Islam]] is still the official religion as it was during the Safavids. After decline of the [[Timurid Empire]] (1370–1506), there were many local states prior to the Iranian state established by Ismail I. <ref>The writer Ṛūmlu documented the most important of them in his history.</ref> The most important local rulers about [[1500]] were:

==== Political scene in Persia prior to Ismāil's rule ====

After the decline of the [[Timurid Empire]] (1370–1506), there were many local states prior to the Iranian state established by Ismāil.<ref>The writer Ṛūmlu documented the most important of them in his history.</ref> The most important local rulers about [[1500]] were:

* [[Husayn Bayqarah|Huṣayn Bāyqarā]], the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] ruler of [[Herat|Herāt]]

Line 56 ⟶ 47:

* Murād Beg Bayandar, local ruler of [[Yazd]]

Ismāil was able to unite all these lands under the Iranian Empire he created.▼

▲IsmāilIsmail was able to unite all these lands under the Iranian Empireempire he created.

== Shāh Tahmāsp ==

== Shah Tahmasp ==

{{main|Shah Tahmasp}}

ShāhShah Tahmāsp, the young ''governor of [[Herat]]'',Tahmasp succeeded his father IsmāilShah Ismail I in 930/1524, when he was ten years and three months old.<ref name="savoryeiref" /> He was the [[Ward (law)|ward]] of thea powerfulqizilbash Qizilbash ''amir'' Ali Beg Rūmlū (titled ''"Div Soltān"'') who saw himself as the de facto ruler of the state. <ref name="savoryeiref" /> For around ten years, rival Qizilbāshqizilbash factions fought amongst themselves for the control of the empireIran until ShāhShah Tahmāsp reasserted his authority effectively and ended up by reigning for 52 years, the longest reign in Safavid history. <ref name="savoryeiref" /> The Uzbeks, during the reign of Tahmāsp,Tahmasp attacked the [[GreaterKhurasan Khorasan|eastern provincesregion of the kingdom]]Iran five times and the Ottomans under [[SuleimanSoleiman the Magnificent|Soleymān I]]II made four invasions of Persia. As a result, Persia lost territory in [[Iraq]],Baghdad and TahmāspTahmasp wasalso forcedmoved tothe move hisSafavid capital from Tabriz to Qazvin. Using diplomacy, he negotiated with the Ottomans the treaty of Amasya and peace remained unbroken during the rest of his era. <ref name="savoryeiref" />

After the death of TahmāspTahmasp in 984/1576, the struggle for a dominant position in the state was complicated by rival groups and factions.<ref name="savoryeiref" /> Dominant political factions vied for power and support three different candidates. The mentally unstable IsmāilIsmail, the son of TahmāspTahmasp and the purblind Sultan Muhammad KhudābandaKhudabanda were some of the candidates but did not get the support of all the Qizilbāshkizilbash chiefsamirs. The Turkmen UstājlūUstalju tribe, one of the most powerful tribes among the Qizilbāsh, threw its support behind Haydar, who was of a Georgian mother, but the majority of the Qizilbāshkizilbash chiefsamirs saw this as a threat to their own, Turkmen-dominated power<ref name="savoryeiref" />. Instead, they firstThey placed [[Ismail II|Ismāil II.]] on the throne Ismail II (1576-1577) and afterthen himSultan [[Mohammed Khodabanda|Muhammad Shāh Khudābanda]]Shah (1578-1588).

== Shah Abbas ==

{{main|Shah Abbas I}}

The greatest of the Safavid monarchs, [[Shah Abbas I]] (1587&ndash;1629) came to power in 1587 aged 16 following the forced [[abdication]] of his father, [[Shah Muhammad Khudābanda]], having survived Qizilbashi court intrigues and murders. He recognized the ineffectualness of his army which was consistently being defeated by the Ottomans who had captured Georgia and Armenia and by Uzbeks who had captured [[Mashhad]] and [[Sistan]] in the east. First he sued for peace in 1590 with the Ottomans giving away territory in the north-west. Then two Englishmen, [[Robert Sherley]] and his brother [[Anthony Sherley|Anthony]], helped Abbas I to reorganize the Shah's soldiers into an officer-paid and well-trained standing army similar to a European model (which the Ottomans had already adopted). He wholeheartedly adopted the use of gunpowder (See [[Military history of Iran]]). The army divisions were: [[GhulamGhulams]]s غلام (crown servants or slaves <ref>D. M. Lang. "Georgia and the Fall of the Safavi Dynasty", ''Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 14, No. 3'', Studies Presented to Vladimir Minorsky by His Colleagues and Friends (1952), pp. 523-539</ref> usually conscripted from [[Armenia]]n, [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] and [[Circassian]] lands), Tofongchis تفگنچى (musketeers), and Topchis توپچى (artillery-men).

Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing [[Herat]] and Mashhad in 1598. Then he turned against the Ottomans recapturing Baghdad, eastern Iraq and the Caucasian provinces by 1622. He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from [[Bahrain]] (1602) and the English navy from [[Hormuz]] (1622), in the [[Persian Gulf]] (a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). He expanded commercial links with the [[English East India Company]] and the [[Dutch East India Company]]. Thus Abbas I was able to break the dependence on the Qizilbash for military might and therefore was able to centralize control.

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The [[Ottoman Turks]] and Safavids fought over the fertile plains of Iraq for more than 150 years. The capture of [[Baghdad]] by Ismail I in [[1509]] was only followed by its loss to the Ottoman Sultan [[Suleiman I]] in [[1534]]. After subsequent campaigns, the Safavids recaptured Baghdad in [[1623]] yet lost it again to [[Murad IV]] in [[1638]]. Henceforth a treaty, signed in [[Qasr-e Shirin]], was established delineating a border between Iran and Turkey in [[1639]], a border which still stands in northwest Iran/southeast Turkey. The 150 year tug-of-war accentuated the Sunni and Shi'a rift in [[Iraq]].

In 1609-1610, a war broke out between [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] tribes and the [[Safavid Empire]]. After a long and bloody siege led by the Safavid grand vizier Hatem Beg, which lasted from November [[1609]] to the summer of [[1610]], the [[Battle of DimDim|Kurdish stronghold of Dimdim was captured]]. Shah Abbas ordered a general massacre in Beradost and Mukriyan([[Mahabad]]) (Reported by Eskandar Beg Monshi, Safavid Historian (1557-1642) in the Book "Alam Ara Abbasi") and resettled the [[Turkic peoples|Turkish]] Afshar tribe in the region while deporting many [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] tribes to [[Khorasan]].<ref> (see [http://www.iranica.com/articles/v7/v7f4/v7f446.html 1] and ISBN 0-89158-296-7). Also see " O. Dzh. Dzhalilov, Kurdski geroicheski epos Zlatoruki Khan" (The Kurdish heroic epic Gold-hand Khan), Moscow, 1967. Nowadays There is a community of nearly 1.7 million people who are descendants of the tribes deported from Kurdistan to Khurasan (Northeastern Iran) by the Safavids. For a map of these areas see [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/commonwealth/commonwealth_islamic_groups.jpg this map].

*[http://www.iranica.com/articles/v7/v7f4/v7f446.html Encyclopaedia Iranica] and ISBN 0-89158-296-7

*O. Dzh. Dzhalilov, "Kurdski geroicheski epos Zlatoruki Khan" ("The Kurdish heroic epic Gold-hand Khan"), Moscow, 1967</ref> Nowadays, there is a community of nearly 1.7 million people who are descendants of the tribes deported from Kurdistan to Khurasan (Northeastern Iran) by the Safavids.<ref>For a map of these areas, see [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/commonwealth/commonwealth_islamic_groups.jpg this map]</ref>

Due to his obsessive fear of assassination, Shah Abbas either put to death or blinded any member of his family who aroused his suspicion. In this way one of his sons was executed and two blinded. Since two other sons had predeceased him, the result was personal tragedy for Shah Abbas. When he died on [[19 January]] [[1629]], he had no son capable of succeeding him.<ref> ( see [[Encyclopaedia Iranica]] at [http://www.iranica.com] under "Abbas I the Great", page 75</ref>).

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The beginning of the [[17th century]] saw the power of the Qizilbash decline, the original militia that had helped Ismail I capture Tabriz and which had gained many administrative powers over the centuries. Power was shifting to a new class of merchants, many of them ethnic [[Armenians]], [[Georgian people|Georgian]]s and [[Demographics of India|Indian]]s.

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==Decline of the Safavid state==

{{main|Hotaki|Afsharids}}

[[Image:40sotoon.jpg|right|thumb|270px|View of Chehel-sotoon Palace, [[Isfahan (city)|Isfahan]], [[Iran]].]]

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Except for Shah [[Abbas II of Persia|Abbas II]], the Safavid rulers after Abbas I were ineffectual. The end of his reign, [[1666]], marked the beginning of the end of the Safavid dynasty. Despite falling revenues and military threats, later shahs had lavish lifestyles.

The country was repeatedly raided on its frontiers &mdash; Kerman by [[Baluchi]] tribesmen in 1698, Khorasan by Afghans in 1717, constantly in [[Mesopotamia]] by peninsula Arabs. Shah Sultan Hosein tried to forcibly convert his Afghan subjects in eastern Iran from Sunni to Shi'a Islam. In response, a [[Ghilzai]] [[Pashtun]] chieftain named [[Mir Wais Khan]] began a rebellion against the Georgian governor, [[Gurgin Khan]], of [[Kandahar]] and defeated a Safavid army. Later, in [[1722]] an Afghan army led by Mir Wais' son Mahmud marched across eastern Iran, besieged, and sacked Isfahan and proclaimed Mahmud 'Shah' of Persia (see the [[Hotaki]] dynasty).

The Afghans rode roughshod over their conquered territory for a dozen years but were prevented from making further gains by [[Nadir Shah]], a former slave who had risen to military leadership within the Afshar tribe in [[Khorasan]], a vassal state of the Safavids. Nadir Shah defeated the Afghans in the [[Battle of Damghan]], [[1729]]. He had driven out the Afghans, who were still occupying Persia, by [[1730]]. In [[1738]], Nadir Shah reconquered Eastern Persia, starting with [[Qandahar]]; in the same year he occupied [[Ghazni]], [[Kabul]], and [[Lahore]], later conquering as far as east as [[Delhi]], but not fortifying his Persian base and exhausting his army's strength. He had effective control under Shah [[Tahmasp II]] and then ruled as regent of the infant [[Abbas III]] until [[1736]] when he had himself crowned shah.

Immediately after Nadir Shah's assassination in [[1747]], the Safavids were re-appointed as shahs of Iran in order to lend legitimacy to the nascent [[Zand dynasty]]. However the brief puppet regime of [[Ismail III]] ended in [[1760]] when [[Karim Khan]] felt strong enough take nominal power of the country as well and officially end the Safavid dynasty.

==Shia Islam as the state religion==