Sex differences in psychology: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{Also|Empathy#Sex differences}}

Current literature find that women demonstrate more empathy across studies.<ref name="empathy" /> Women perform better than men in tests involving emotional interpretation, such as understanding facial expressions, and [[empathy]].<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.85.4.845 |title=Gender effects in decoding nonverbal cues |year=1978 |last1=Hall |first1=Judith A. |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=845–857}}</ref><ref>Judith A. Hall (1984): Nonverbal sex differences. Communication accuracy and expressive style. 207 pp. Johns Hopkins University Press.{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref><ref>Judith A. Hall, Jason D. Carter & Terrence G. Horgan (2000): Gender differences in nonverbal communication of emotion. Pp. 97 - 117 i A. H. Fischer (ed.): Gender and emotion: social psychological perspectives. Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Agneta H. Fischer & Anthony S. R. Manstead (2000): The relation between gender and emotions in different cultures. Pp. 71 - 94 i A. H. Fischer (ed.): Gender and emotion: social psychological perspectives. Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url = https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/135570/measurem.pdf?sequence=1|title = Measurement of affective empathy with Pictorial Empathy Test (PET)|date = April 2014|access-date = 21 November 2017|website = Digital Repository of the University of Helsinki|publisher = Department of Behavioral Sciences|last = Koirikivi|first = Iivo}}</ref>

Empathy is a large part of [[social cognition]] and facilitates its cognitive components known as [[theory of mind]]. Current literature suggests a higher level of [[empathy]] in woman compared to men. Reviews, meta-analysis and studies of physiological measures, behavioral tests, and brain neuroimaging, however, revealed mixed findings.<ref name=":P">{{cite journal|vauthors=Baez S, Flichtentrei D, Prats M, Mastandueno R, García AM, Cetkovich M, Ibáñez A|date=June 20, 2017|title=Men, women…who cares? A population-based study on sex differences and gender roles in empathy and moral cognition|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=12|issue=6|pages=e0179336|bibcode=2017PLoSO..1279336B|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179336|pmc=5478130|pmid=28632770}}</ref><ref name="XD">{{cite journal|vauthors=Michalska KJ, Kinzler KD, Decety J|date=January 2013|title=Age-related sex differences in explicit measures of empathy do not predict brain responses across childhood and adolescence|journal=Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience|volume=3|pages=22–32|doi=10.1016/j.dcn.2012.08.001|pmc=6987715|pmid=23245217}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Joseph DL, Newman DA|date=January 2010|title=Emotional intelligence: an integrative meta-analysis and cascading model|journal=The Journal of Applied Psychology|volume=95|issue=1|pages=54–78|doi=10.1037/a0017286|pmid=20085406}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Christov-Moore L, Simpson EA, Coudé G, Grigaityte K, Iacoboni M, Ferrari PF|date=October 2014|title=Empathy: gender effects in brain and behavior|journal=Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews|volume=46|issue=Pt 4|pages=604–27|doi=10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001|pmc=5110041|pmid=25236781}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Hertenstein MJ, Keltner D|date=January 2011|title=Gender and the Communication of Emotion Via Touch|journal=Sex Roles|volume=64|issue=1–2|pages=70–80|doi=10.1007/s11199-010-9842-y|pmc=3016097|pmid=21297854}}</ref> Whereas experimental and neuropsychological measures show no reliable sex effect, self-report data consistently indicates greater empathy in females.<ref name=":P" /> The research from ''Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience'' compared age-related sex differences in both self-report and neurophysiological measures of empathic arousal in sixty-five 4–17-year-old children. Self-report indicated greater responsivity by females, which increased with age, while implicit hemodynamic and physiological measures did not demonstrate any gender-related patterns.<ref name="XD" /> Similarly, one study attempted to test the theory of emotional sensitivity by testing emotion perception and self-reported emotional intelligence. According to the results of this study, women did not show their declared advantages in the perception of emotions, that is, there were no significant differences.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Fischer AH, Kret ME, Broekens J|date=2018-01-25|title=Gender differences in emotion perception and self-reported emotional intelligence: A test of the emotion sensitivity hypothesis|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=1|pages=e0190712|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1390712F|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0190712|pmc=5784910|pmid=29370198}}</ref> Empathy is also influenced by variables such as stereotypes, gender role and, more importantly, motivation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ickes|first=William|last2=Gesn|first2=Paul R.|last3=Graham|first3=Tiffany|date=2000|title=Gender differences in empathic accuracy: Differential ability or differential motivation?|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2000.tb00006.x|journal=Personal Relationships|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=95–109|doi=10.1111/j.1475-6811.2000.tb00006.x|issn=1475-6811}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Klein|first=Kristi J. K.|last2=Hodges|first2=Sara D.|date=2001-06-01|title=Gender Differences, Motivation, and Empathic Accuracy: When it Pays to Understand|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201276007|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|language=en|volume=27|issue=6|pages=720–730|doi=10.1177/0146167201276007|issn=0146-1672}}</ref> Thus, in some studies, it has been repeatedly demonstrated that women probably do not have higher empathy abilities, but are simply more easily motivated because they are trying to conform to the stereotype of femininity.<ref name=":7" /> With an increase in the motivation of money for a good result of empathic accuracy, the differences between men and women ceased to be statistically significant and became equal, but if in the study the subjects were given to understand that empathic accuracy was measured, then men did not show sufficient motivation to achieve good results.<ref name=":7" />

Some studies argue that this is related to the subject's perceived gender identity and gendered expectations influencing the subject's implicit gender stereotypes.<ref name="Fine"/> Additionally, culture impacts gender differences in the expression of emotions. This may be explained by the different [[social role]]s women and men have in different cultures, and by the status and [[Power (philosophy)|power]] men and women hold in different societies, as well as the different cultural values various societies hold.<ref name="Niedenthal"/> Some studies have found no differences in empathy between women and men, and suggest that perceived gender differences are the result of motivational differences.<ref name="Ickes, W. 1997">Ickes, W. (1997). Empathic accuracy. New York: The Guilford Press.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/0146167201276007 |title=Gender Differences, Motivation, and Empathic Accuracy: When it Pays to Understand |year=2001 |last1=Klein |first1=K. J. K. |last2=Hodges |first2=S. D. |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=27 |issue=6 |pages=720–730|s2cid=14361887 }}</ref> Some researchers argue that because differences in empathy disappear on tests where it is not clear that empathy is being studied, men and women do not differ in ability, but instead in how empathetic they would like to appear to themselves and others.<ref name="Fine"/><ref>{{cite web |last=Schaffer |first=Amanda |title=The Sex Difference Evangelists |work=Slate |date=July 2, 2008 |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2194486/entry/2194489}}</ref>

A review published in the journal ''[[Neuropsychologia]]'' found that women are better at recognizing facial effects, expression processing and emotions in general.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|title = A review on sex differences in processing emotional signals|journal = Neuropsychologia|date = 2012-06-01|pages = 1211–1221|volume = 50|issue = 7|doi = 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2011.12.022|pmid = 22245006|first1 = M. E.|last1 = Kret|first2 = B.|last2 = De Gelder|s2cid = 11695245|url = http://dare.uva.nl/personal/pure/en/publications/a-review-on-sex-differences-in-processing-emotional-signals(3aea49a9-7521-4aae-863d-6f351a012b88).html}}</ref> Men were only better at recognizing specific behaviour which includes anger, aggression and threatening cues.<ref name=":5" /> A 2006 meta-analysis by researcher Rena A Kirkland from the ''[[North American Journal of Psychology]]'' found significant sex differences favouring females in "Reading of the mind" test. "Reading of the mind" test is an ability measure of theory of mind or cognitive empathy in which Kirkland's analysis involved 259 studies across 10 countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Meta-analysis reveals adult female superiority in "Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test"|url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/260712981|journal=North American Journal of Psychology |volume=15 |issue = 1|pages=449–458 |date=March 2013|via= ResearchGate|access-date = 2015-12-04}}</ref> Another 2014 meta-analysis in the journal of ''Cognition and Emotion'', found overall female advantage in non-verbal emotional recognition across 215 samples.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Sex differences in the ability to recognise non-verbal displays of emotion: A meta-analysis|journal = Cognition and Emotion|date = 2014-10-03|issn = 0269-9931|pmid = 24400860|pages = 1164–1195|volume = 28|issue = 7|doi = 10.1080/02699931.2013.875889|first1 = Ashley E.|last1 = Thompson|first2 = Daniel|last2 = Voyer|s2cid = 5402395}}</ref>

An analysis from the journal of ''[[Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews]]'' found that there are sex differences in empathy from birth which remains consistent and stable across lifespan.<ref name="empathy">{{Cite journal|title = Empathy: Gender effects in brain and behavior|journal = Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews|pages = 604–627|volume = 46|doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001|first1 = Leonardo|last1 = Christov-Moore|first2 = Elizabeth A.|last2 = Simpson|first3 = Gino|last3 = Coudé|first4 = Kristina|last4 = Grigaityte|first5 = Marco|last5 = Iacoboni|first6 = Pier Francesco|last6 = Ferrari|pmid=25236781|pmc=5110041|year = 2014}}</ref> Females were found to have higher empathy than males while children with higher empathy regardless of gender continue to be higher in empathy throughout development.<ref name="empathy" /> Further analysis of brain tools such as [[Event-related potential|event related potentials]] found that females who saw human suffering had higher ERP waveforms than males.<ref name="empathy" /> Another investigation with similar brain tools such as [[N400 (neuroscience)|N400]] amplitudes found higher N400 in females in response to social situations which positively correlated with self-reported empathy.<ref name="empathy" /> Structural fMRI studies found females have larger [[grey matter]] volumes in posterior [[Inferior frontal gyrus|inferior frontal]] and anterior [[Inferior parietal lobule|inferior parietal cortex]] areas which are correlated with [[mirror neuron]]s in fMRI literature.<ref name="empathy" /> Females were also found to have stronger link between emotional and cognitive empathy.<ref name="empathy" /> The researchers found that the stability of these sex differences in development are unlikely to be explained by any environment influences but rather might have some roots in human evolution and inheritance.<ref name="empathy" />

An evolutionary explanation for the difference is that understanding and tracking relationships and reading others' emotional states was particularly important for women in prehistoric societies for tasks such as caring for children and social networking.<ref name="Geary">{{cite book|last = Geary| first = David C.|author-link = David C. Geary | title = Male, female: The evolution of human sex differences|publisher = American Psychological Association|year = 1998|isbn = 978-1-55798-527-9}}{{page needed|date=June 2013}}</ref> Throughout prehistory, females nurtured and were the primary caretakers of children so this might have led to an evolved neurological adaptation for women to be more aware and responsive to non-verbal expressions. According to the ''Primary Caretaker Hypothesis'', prehistoric males did not have same selective pressure as primary caretakers so therefore this might explain modern day sex differences in emotion recognition and empathy.<ref>{{Cite journal |title = Empathy:Gendereffects in brain and behavior|last = Christov-Moore|first = Leonardo|date = 2014|journal = Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews|doi = 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001|pmid = 25236781|volume=46|pages=604–627|pmc=5110041}}</ref>

===Emotion===