Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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| common_name = Yugoslavia

| era = [[Cold War]]

| event_pre = [[Democratic Federal Yugoslavia|DF Yugoslavia]] formed

| date_pre = 29 November 1943

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| symbol_type = [[Emblem of Yugoslavia|Emblem]] (1963–1992)

| image_map = Yugoslavia 1956-1990.svg

| image_map_caption = Map of Europe inbetween 1955 and 1989, showing Yugoslavia~~<br~~ />highlighted in green

| capital = [[Belgrade]]

| largest_city = capital

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| demonym = [[Yugoslavs|Yugoslav]] Yugoslavian

| currency = [[Yugoslav dinar]] (YUN){{ref label|d|d}}

| title_leader = [[President of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia|~~General~~President ~~Secretary~~of the League of Communists]]

| leader1 = [[Josip Broz Tito]]

| leader2 = [[Milan Pančevski]]

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The '''Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia''' (commonly abbreviated as '''SFRY''' or '''SFR Yugoslavia'''), commonly referred to as '''Socialist Yugoslavia''' or simply '''Yugoslavia''', was a country in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Southeast Europe]]. It was established in 1945 as the '''Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia''', following [[World War II]], and lasted until 1992, [[breakup of Yugoslavia|breaking up]] as a consequence of the [[Yugoslav Wars]]. Spanning an area of {{Convert|255804|km2|sqmi}} in the [[Balkans]], Yugoslavia was bordered by the [[Adriatic Sea]] and [[Italy]] to the west, [[Austria]] and [[Hungarian People's Republic|Hungary]] to the north, [[People's Republic of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] and [[Socialist Republic of Romania|Romania]] to the east, and [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]] and [[Greece]] to the south. It was a [[One-party state|one-party]] [[socialist state]] and [[federation]] governed by the [[League of Communists of Yugoslavia]], and had six constituent republics: [[Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Socialist Republic of Croatia|Croatia]], [[Socialist Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]], [[Socialist Republic of Montenegro|Montenegro]], [[Socialist Republic of Serbia|Serbia]], and [[Socialist Republic of Slovenia|Slovenia]]. Within Serbia was the Yugoslav capital city of [[Belgrade]] as well as two autonomous Yugoslav provinces: [[Socialist Autonomous Province of Kosovo|Kosovo]] and [[Socialist Autonomous Province of Vojvodina|Vojvodina]].

The country emerged as [[Democratic Federal Yugoslavia]] on 29 November 1943, during the second session of the [[Anti-Fascist Council for the National Liberation of Yugoslavia]] midst [[World War II in Yugoslavia]]. Recognised by the [[Allies of World War II]] at the [[Tehran Conference]] as the legal successor state to [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], it was a [[Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia|provisionally governed state]] formed to unite the Yugoslav resistance movement to the [[occupation of Yugoslavia]] by the [[Axis powers]]. Following the country's liberation, [[Peter II of Yugoslavia|King Peter II]] was deposed, the [[Monarchy of Yugoslavia|monarchical rule]] was ended, and on 29 November 1945, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia was proclaimed. Led by [[Josip Broz Tito]], the new [[communist government]] sided with the [[Eastern Bloc]] at the beginning of the [[Cold War]] but pursued a policy of [[Neutrality (international relations)|neutrality]] following the 1948 [[Tito–Stalin split]]; it became a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and transitioned from a [[command economy]] to [[Market socialism#In practice|market-based socialism]]. The country was renamed Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in 1963.

After Tito died on 4 May 1980, the [[Economy of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav economy]] began to collapse, which increased unemployment and inflation.<ref>{{cite book |title=Inflation Rate % 1992 |publisher=[[CIA Factbook]] |year=1992 |url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1992/rankings/inflation_rate_pct_1.html | access-date = 30 April 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180501093945/https://www.theodora.com/wfb/1992/rankings/inflation_rate_pct_1.html | archive-date = 1 May 2018 | url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Labor Force 1992 |publisher=[[CIA Factbook]] |year=1992 |url=http://www.theodora.com/wfb/1992/rankings/labor_force_0.html | access-date = 30 April 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180501093245/https://www.theodora.com/wfb/1992/rankings/labor_force_0.html | archive-date = 1 May 2018 | url-status = live}}</ref> The economic crisis led to rising [[ethnic nationalism]] and political dissidence in the late 1980s and early 1990s. With the [[Revolutions of 1989|fall of communism]] in [[Eastern Europe]], efforts to transition into a [[confederation]] failed; the two wealthiest republics, Croatia and Slovenia, seceded and gained some international recognition in 1991. The federation dissolved along the borders of federated republics, hastened by the start of the Yugoslav Wars, and formally broke up on 27 April 1992. Two republics, Serbia and Montenegro, remained within a reconstituted state known as the [[Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]], or FR Yugoslavia, but this state was not recognized internationally as the [[Agreement on Succession Issues of the Former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|sole successor state to SFR Yugoslavia]]. "[[Former Yugoslavia]]" is now commonly used retrospectively.

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**[[Gaj's Latin alphabet|Latin]]: {{lang|sh-Latn|Socijalistička Federativna Republika Jugoslavija}}

**[[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]: {{lang|sh-Cyrl|Социјалистичка Федеративна Република Југославија}}

**{{IPA-|sh|sot͡sijalǐstit͡ʃkaː fêderatiːʋnaː repǔblika juɡǒslaːʋija}}

**{{IPA-|mk|sɔt͡sijaˈlistit͡ʃka fɛdɛraˈtivna rɛˈpublika juɡɔˈsɫavija}}

*[[Slovene language|Slovene]]

**{{lang|sl|Socialistična federativna republika Jugoslavija}}

**{{IPA-|sl|sɔtsijaˈlìːstitʃna fɛdɛraˈtíːwna rɛˈpùːblika juɡɔˈslàːʋija}}

Due to the name's length, abbreviations were often used for the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, though it was most commonly known simply as ''Yugoslavia''. The most common abbreviation is SFRY, though "SFR Yugoslavia" was also used in an official capacity, particularly by the media.

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However, economic issues have not been demonstrated to be the sole determining factor in the break up, as Yugoslavia in this period was the most prosperous Communist state in Eastern Europe, and the country in fact disintegrated during a period of economic recovery after the implementation of the economic reforms of Ante Marković's government.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 16">Dejan Jović. ''Yugoslavia: a state that withered away''. Purdue University Press, 2009. p. 16</ref> Furthermore, during the break up of Yugoslavia, the leaders of Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, all declined an unofficial offer by the [[European Community]] to provide substantial economic support to them in exchange for a political compromise.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 16" /> However, the issue of economic inequality between the republics, autonomous provinces, and nations of Yugoslavia resulted in tensions with claims of disadvantage and accusations of privileges against others by these groups.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 16" /> Political protests in Serbia and Slovenia, which later developed into ethnic-driven conflict, began in the late 1980s as protests against the alleged injustice and bureaucratization of the political elite.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 18">Dejan Jović. ''Yugoslavia: a state that withered away''. Purdue University Press, 2009. p. 18</ref> Members of the political elite managed to redirect these protests against "others".<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 16" /> Serb demonstrators were worried about the disintegration of the country and alleged that "the others" (Croats, Slovenes, and international institutions) were deemed responsible.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 18" /> The Slovene intellectual elite argued that "the others" (Serbs) were responsible for "Greater Serbian expansionist designs", for economic exploitation of Slovenia, and for the suppression of Slovene national identity.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 18" /> These redirection actions of the popular protests allowed the authorities of Serbia and Slovenia to survive at the cost of undermining the unity of Yugoslavia.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 18" /> Other republics such as Bosnia & Herzegovina and Croatia refused to follow these tactics taken by Serbia and Slovenia, later resulting in the defeat of the respective League of Communists of each republic to nationalist political forces.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 18" /> From the point of view of international politics, it has been argued that the end of the Cold War contributed to the break up of Yugoslavia because Yugoslavia lost its strategic international political importance as an intermediary between the Eastern and Western blocs.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 26">Dejan Jović. ''Yugoslavia: a state that withered away''. Purdue University Press, 2009. p. 26.</ref> As a consequence, Yugoslavia lost the economic and political support provided by the West, and increased pressure from the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) to reform its institutions made it impossible for the Yugoslav reformist elite to respond to rising social disorder.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 26" />

The [[collapse of communism]] throughout Eastern Europe in 1989 and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in 1991 undermined the country's ideological basis and encouraged anti-communist and nationalist forces in the Western-oriented republics of Croatia and Slovenia to increase their demands.<ref name="Dejan Jović 2009. p. 26" /> Nationalist sentiment among ethnic Serbs rose dramatically following the ratification of the 1974 Constitution, which reduced the powers of [[SR Serbia]] over its autonomous provinces of [[SAP Kosovo]] and [[SAP Vojvodina]]. In Serbia, this caused increasing xenophobia against Albanians. In Kosovo (administered mostly by ethnic Albanian Communists), the Serbian minority increasingly put forth complaints of mistreatment and abuse by the Albanian majority. Feelings were further inflamed in 1986, when the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU) published the [[SANU Memorandum]].<ref>Lampe, "Yugoslavia as History", 347.</ref> In it, Serbian writers and historians voiced "various currents of Serb nationalist resentment."<ref>Benson, "Yugoslavia: A Concise History", 146.</ref> The SKJ was at the time united in condemning the memorandum, and continued to follow its anti-nationalist policy.<ref name="Yugoslavia: a concise history"/> In 1987, Serbian Communist official [[Slobodan Milošević]] was sent to bring calm to an ethnically driven protest by Serbs against the Albanian administration of SAP Kosovo. Milošević had been, up to this point, a hard-line Communist who had decried all forms of nationalism as treachery, such as condemning the SANU Memorandum as "nothing else but the darkest nationalism".<ref>Lampe, John R. 2000. ''Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p347</ref> However, Kosovo's autonomy had always been an unpopular policy in Serbia, and he took advantage of the situation and made a departure from traditional Communist neutrality on the issue of Kosovo. Milošević assured Serbs that their mistreatment by ethnic Albanians would be stopped.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/branson-milosevic.html?mcubz=3 |title=Milosevic |website=[[The New York Times]]|access-date = 19 June 2018|archive-date = 8 April 2023|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230408034721/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/b/branson-milosevic.html?mcubz=3|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=~~http~~https://~~articles~~www.chicagotribune.com/2001-/06-/28/~~news/0106280054_1_slobodan~~the-~~milosevic~~serbs-~~ethnic~~sacrifice-~~cleansing-serbs~~milosevic/ |title=The Serbs sacrifice Milosevic|date=28 June 2001 |access-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615111439/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2001-06-28/news/0106280054_1_slobodan-milosevic-ethnic-cleansing-serbs|archive-date=15 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/06/29/hubris-brought-fall-of-milosevic/19489276-dbbc-4907-a456-20bdc782ff79/ |title=Hubris Brought Fall of Milosevic |first=Michael |last=Dobbs |date=29 June 2001 |via=www.washingtonpost.com|access-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615111526/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2001/06/29/hubris-brought-fall-of-milosevic/19489276-dbbc-4907-a456-20bdc782ff79/|archive-date=15 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2016/06/19/hope-fear-milan-panic-trump-milosevic-seselji-europe-column/85790756/ |title=Why Trump reminds me of Milosevic: Milan Panic |website=[[USA Today]]|access-date=15 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615114706/https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2016/06/19/hope-fear-milan-panic-trump-milosevic-seselji-europe-column/85790756/|archive-date=15 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> He then began a campaign against the ruling Communist elite of SR Serbia, demanding reductions in the autonomy of Kosovo and Vojvodina. These actions made him popular amongst Serbs and aided his rise to power in Serbia. Milošević and his allies took on an aggressive nationalist agenda of reviving SR Serbia within Yugoslavia, promising reforms and protection of all Serbs. Milošević proceeded to take control of the governments of Vojvodina, Kosovo, and the neighboring [[Socialist Republic of Montenegro]] in what was dubbed the "[[Anti-Bureaucratic Revolution]]" by the Serbian media. Both the SAPs possessed a vote on the Yugoslav Presidency in accordance to the 1974 constitution, and together with Montenegro and his own Serbia, Milošević now directly controlled four out of eight votes in the collective head-of-state by January 1990. This only caused further resentment among the governments of Croatia and Slovenia, along with the ethnic Albanians of Kosovo ([[SR Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and [[SR Macedonia]] remained relatively neutral).<ref name="Yugoslavia: a concise history" />

Fed up by Milošević's manipulation of the assembly, first the delegations of the [[League of Communists of Slovenia|League Communists of Slovenia]] led by Milan Kučan, and later the [[League of Communists of Croatia]], led by [[Ivica Račan]], walked out during the extraordinary [[14th (extraordinary) Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia|14th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia]] (January 1990), effectively dissolving the all-Yugoslav party. Along with external pressure, this caused the adoption of multi-party systems in all of the republics. When the individual republics organized their multi-party elections in 1990, the ex-Communists mostly failed to win re-election. In Croatia and Slovenia, nationalist parties won their respective elections. On 8 April 1990 the first multiparty elections in Slovenia (and Yugoslavia) since the Second World War were held. Demos coalition won the elections and formed a government which started to implement electoral reform programs. In Croatia, the [[Croatian Democratic Union]] (HDZ) won the election promising to "defend Croatia from Milošević" which caused alarm among Croatia's large Serbian minority.<ref name="Yugoslavia: a concise history" /> Croatian Serbs, for their part, were wary of HDZ leader [[Franjo Tuđman]]'s nationalist government and in 1990, Serb nationalists in the southern Croatian town of [[Knin]] organized and formed a separatist entity known as the [[SAO Krajina]], which demanded to remain in union with the rest of the Serb populations if Croatia decided to secede. The government of Serbia endorsed the Croatian Serbs' rebellion, claiming that for Serbs, rule under Tuđman's government would be equivalent to the World War II fascist [[Independent State of Croatia]] (NDH) which committed genocide against Serbs during World War II. Milošević used this to rally Serbs against the Croatian government and Serbian newspapers joined in the warmongering.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE5DC1538F93AA2575BC0A966958260&scp=7&sq=Tudjman&st=nyt |work=The New York Times |title=Roads Sealed as Yugoslav Unrest Mounts |date=19 August 1990 | access-date=26 April 2010 | archive-date=8 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408034720/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/08/19/world/roads-sealed-as-yugoslav-unrest-mounts.html?scp=7&sq=Tudjman&st=nyt | url-status=live}}</ref> Serbia had by now printed $1.8 billion worth of new money without any backing of the Yugoslav central bank.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE1D81638F933A25752C0A967958260 |work=The New York Times |title=Financial Scandal Rocks Yugoslavia |first=Chuck |last=Sudetic |date=10 January 1991 | access-date=26 April 2010 | archive-date=8 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408034740/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/01/10/world/financial-scandal-rocks-yugoslavia.html | url-status=live}}</ref> In the Slovenian independence referendum, held on 23 December 1990, a vast majority of residents voted for independence. 88.5% of all electors (94.8% of those participating) voted for independence – which was declared on 25 June 1991.<ref>Volitve [Elections]. "Statistični letopis 2011" [Statistical Yearbook 2011]. Statistical Yearbook 2011 15 (Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia). 2011. p. 108.</ref>

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In September 1992, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (consisting of [[Republic of Serbia (1992–2006)|Serbia]] and [[Republic of Montenegro (1992–2006)|Montenegro]]) failed to achieve ''[[de jure]]'' recognition as the continuation of the Socialist Federal Republic in the United Nations. It was separately recognised as a successor alongside Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia. Before 2000, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia declined to re-apply for membership in the United Nations and the [[United Nations Secretariat]] allowed the mission from the SFRY to continue to operate and accredited representatives of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the SFRY mission, continuing work in various United Nations organs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Murphy |first=Sean D. |title=United States Practice in International Law: 1999–2001, Volume 1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |page=130 |isbn=978-0-521-75070-7}}</ref> It was only after the [[overthrow of Slobodan Milošević]], that the government of FR Yugoslavia applied for UN membership in 2000.

== ~~Politics~~Governance ==

=== Constitution ===

[[File:Novi Beograd - The SIV building.jpg|thumb|[[Palace of Serbia|SIV 1]], the Federal Executive Council]]

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Yugoslavia had mixed relations towards [[Enver Hoxha]]'s [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|Albania]]. Initially Yugoslav-Albanian relations were forthcoming, as Albania adopted a common market with Yugoslavia and required the teaching of Serbo-Croatian to students in high schools.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} At this time, the concept of creating a Balkan Federation was being discussed between Yugoslavia, Albania, and Bulgaria.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} Albania at this time was heavily dependent on economic support of Yugoslavia to fund its initially weak infrastructure. Trouble between Yugoslavia and Albania began when Albanians began to complain that Yugoslavia was paying too little for Albania's natural resources.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} Afterward, relations between Yugoslavia and Albania worsened. From 1948 onward, the Soviet Union backed Albania in opposition to Yugoslavia. On the issue of Albanian-populated Kosovo, Yugoslavia and Albania both attempted to neutralize the threat of nationalist conflict, Hoxha opposed [[Albanian nationalism]], as he officially believed in the [[world communist]] ideal of international brotherhood of all people, though on a few occasions in the 1980s he made inflammatory speeches in support of Albanians in Kosovo against the Yugoslav government, when public sentiment in Albania was firmly in support of Kosovo's Albanians.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}}

=== Military ===▼

{{Main|Yugoslav People's Army|Territorial Defense Forces (Yugoslavia)}}▼

[[File:G-4 SOKO Super Galeb 1991.jpg|thumb|[[Soko G-4 Super Galeb]] aircraft]]

The armed forces of SFR Yugoslavia consisted of the Yugoslav People's Army (''Jugoslovenska narodna armija'', JNA), Territorial Defense (TO), Civil Defense (CZ) and ''[[Militsiya|Milicija]]'' (police) in wartime. Socialist Yugoslavia maintained a strong military force. JNA was the main organization of the military forces plus the remnacents of the royal Yugoslav army, and was composed of the ground army, navy and aviation. Militarily, Yugoslavia had a policy of self-sufficiency. Due to its policy of neutrality and non-alignment, efforts were made to develop the country's military industry to provide the military with all its needs, and even for export. Most of its military equipment and pieces were domestically produced, while some was imported both from the East and the West. The regular army mostly originated from the Yugoslav Partisans of World War II.<ref name="Bennett">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Christopher |title=Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse: Causes, Course and Consequences |date=1997 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=9780814712887 |pages=76–77 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mQVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76}}</ref>▼

Yugoslavia had a thriving [[arms industry]] and exported to nations, primarily those who were [[non-aligned movement|non-aligned]] as well as others like [[Iraq]], and [[Ethiopia]].<ref name="Bennett" /> Yugoslav companies like [[Zastava Arms]] produced Soviet-designed weaponry under license as well as creating weaponry from scratch, ranging from police pistols to airplanes. [[SOKO]] was an example of a successful military aircraft design by Yugoslavia before the Yugoslav wars. Beside the federal army, each of the republics had their own respective Territorial Defense Forces.<ref name="Bennett" /> They were a national guard of sorts, established in the frame of a new [[military doctrine]] called "General Popular Defense" as an answer to the brutal end of the [[Prague Spring]] by the Warsaw Pact in [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1968.<ref name="Niebhur">{{cite book |last1=Niebuhr |first1=Robert Edward |title=The Search for a Cold War Legitimacy: Foreign Policy and Tito's Yugoslavia |date=2018 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004358997 |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=asZKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA145}}</ref> It was organized on republic, autonomous province, municipality and local community levels. Given that its role was mainly defense, it had no formal officer training regime, no offensive capabilities and little military training.<ref name="Niebhur" /> As [[Breakup of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia splintered]], the army factionalized along ethnic lines, and by 1991–92 Serbs made up almost the entire army as the separating states formed their own.▼

== Economy ==

[[File:YUD 1000 1981 obverse.jpg|thumb|A 1000 [[Yugoslav dinar|dinar]] banknote, which for a long time had the highest value in the country]]

Despite their common origins, the socialist economy of Yugoslavia was much different from the [[economy of the Soviet Union]] and the [[economies of the Eastern Bloc]], especially after the [[Yugoslav–Soviet break-up]] of 1948. Though they were [[state-owned enterprise]]s, Yugoslav companies were nominally collectively managed by the employees themselves through [[workers' self-management]], albeit with state oversight dictating wage bills and the hiring and firing of managers.<ref name="Flaherty">{{cite journal |journal=[[Science & Society]] |volume=56 |number=1 |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |year=1992 |first=Diane |last=Flaherty |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/40403238.pdf |title=Self-Management and the Future of Socialism: Lessons from Yugoslavia |page=99 |jstor=40403238}}</ref> The occupation and liberation struggle in World War II left Yugoslavia's infrastructure devastated. Even the most developed parts of the country were largely rural, and the little industry the country had was largely damaged or destroyed.{{Citation needed|date=July 2014}} Unemployment was a chronic problem for Yugoslavia:<ref name="Boduszynski">Mieczyslaw P. Boduszynski: [https://books.google.com/books?id=Tx8GQzla0GoC Regime Change in the Yugoslav Successor States: Divergent Paths toward a New Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501211649/https://books.google.com/books?id=Tx8GQzla0GoC |date=1 May 2016 }}, p. 66-67</ref> the unemployment rates were amongst the highest in Europe during its existence and they did not reach critical levels before the 1980s only due to the safety valve provided by sending one million guest workers yearly to advanced industrialized countries in [[Western Europe]].<ref name="Boduszynski2">Mieczyslaw P. Boduszynski: Regime Change in the Yugoslav Successor States: Divergent Paths toward a New Europe, p. 63</ref> The departure of Yugoslavs seeking work began in the 1950s, when individuals began slipping across the border illegally. In the mid-1960s, Yugoslavia lifted emigration restrictions and the number of emigrants increased rapidly, especially to [[West Germany]]. By the early 1970s, 20% of the country's labor force or 1.1 million workers were employed abroad.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.photius.com/countries/croatia/society/yugoslavia_former_society_guest_workers.html |title=Yugoslavia (former) Guest Workers – Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System|access-date=19 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201222313/http://www.photius.com/countries/croatia/society/yugoslavia_former_society_guest_workers.html|archive-date=1 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> This was also a source of capital and foreign currency for Yugoslavia.

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=== Ethnic groups ===

[[File:Yugoslavia ethnic map.jpg|thumb|Ethnic map (1991)]]

The SFRY recognised "nations" ''(narodi)'' and "nationalities" ''(narodnosti)'' separately;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jović |first1=Dejan |title=Fear of becoming minority as a motivator of conflict in the former Yugoslavia |journal=Balkanologie |date=2001 |volume=1-2 |issue=1–2 |doi=10.4000/balkanologie.674 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/balkanologie/674}}</ref> the former included the constituent South Slavic peoples ([[Croats]], Macedonians, [[Montenegrins]], [[Muslims (ethnic group)|Muslims]] (from 1971), Serbs and [[Slovenes]]), while the latter included other Slavic and non-Slavic ethnic groups. In total, about 26 known sizeable ethnic groups were known to live in Yugoslavia. There was also a [[Yugoslavs|Yugoslav]] ethnic designation, for the people who wanted to identify with the entire country, including people who were born to parents in mixed marriages.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ramet |first1=Sabrina P. |title=Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia, 1962-1991 |date=1992 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=9780253347947 |page=53}}</ref>

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Emigration of Yugoslav workers was legalised in 1963, as Yugoslavia experienced an [[economic recession]], a high rate of unemployment and a growing debt in [[hard currency]] through the two years prior, although another factor for the decision were the already widespread illegal crossings of Yugoslavs looking for work abroad as 'tourists' throughout the second half of 1950s. Yugoslav leadership would remain dedicated to strengthening and protecting rights of its workers abroad, through [[embassy|embassies]], [[consulate]]s, [[trade union]]ists and '[[social work]]ers' who among regular workers were responsible for offering them [[legal support|legal]] and [[social support]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.migrationinstitute.org/files/data/demig-policy-database_yugoslavia_version-1-3.xlsx |format=XLSX |title=DEMIG POLICY - Yugoslavia: Determinants of International Migration (DEMIG) POLICY |website=International Migration Institute |date=June 2015 |access-date=21 April 2023 |version=v1.3 |archive-date=21 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230421220531/https://www.migrationinstitute.org/files/data/demig-policy-database_yugoslavia_version-1-3.xlsx |url-status=live }}</ref>

▲== Military ==

▲{{Main|Yugoslav People's Army|Territorial Defense Forces (Yugoslavia)}}

▲The armed forces of SFR Yugoslavia consisted of the Yugoslav People's Army (''Jugoslovenska narodna armija'', JNA), Territorial Defense (TO), Civil Defense (CZ) and ''[[Militsiya|Milicija]]'' (police) in wartime. Socialist Yugoslavia maintained a strong military force. JNA was the main organization of the military forces plus the remnacents of the royal Yugoslav army, and was composed of the ground army, navy and aviation. Militarily, Yugoslavia had a policy of self-sufficiency. Due to its policy of neutrality and non-alignment, efforts were made to develop the country's military industry to provide the military with all its needs, and even for export. Most of its military equipment and pieces were domestically produced, while some was imported both from the East and the West. The regular army mostly originated from the Yugoslav Partisans of World War II.<ref name="Bennett">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Christopher |title=Yugoslavia's Bloody Collapse: Causes, Course and Consequences |date=1997 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=9780814712887 |pages=76–77 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mQVCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA76}}</ref>

▲Yugoslavia had a thriving [[arms industry]] and exported to nations, primarily those who were [[non-aligned movement|non-aligned]] as well as others like [[Iraq]], and [[Ethiopia]].<ref name="Bennett" /> Yugoslav companies like [[Zastava Arms]] produced Soviet-designed weaponry under license as well as creating weaponry from scratch, ranging from police pistols to airplanes. [[SOKO]] was an example of a successful military aircraft design by Yugoslavia before the Yugoslav wars. Beside the federal army, each of the republics had their own respective Territorial Defense Forces.<ref name="Bennett" /> They were a national guard of sorts, established in the frame of a new [[military doctrine]] called "General Popular Defense" as an answer to the brutal end of the [[Prague Spring]] by the Warsaw Pact in [[Czechoslovakia]] in 1968.<ref name="Niebhur">{{cite book |last1=Niebuhr |first1=Robert Edward |title=The Search for a Cold War Legitimacy: Foreign Policy and Tito's Yugoslavia |date=2018 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=9789004358997 |page=145 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=asZKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA145}}</ref> It was organized on republic, autonomous province, municipality and local community levels. Given that its role was mainly defense, it had no formal officer training regime, no offensive capabilities and little military training.<ref name="Niebhur" /> As [[Breakup of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia splintered]], the army factionalized along ethnic lines, and by 1991–92 Serbs made up almost the entire army as the separating states formed their own.

== Education ==

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=== Music ===

==== Traditional music ====

Prominent [[traditional music]] artists were the ~~award-winning~~ [[Tanec]] ensemble, the [[Romani music]] performer [[Esma Redžepova]] and others. A very popular genre in Yugoslavia, also exported to other neighboring countries, and also popular among the Yugoslav emigration worldwide, was the [[Narodna muzika]]. The Slovenian most popular folk music was played by Avsenik brothers (Ansambel bratov Avsenik) and Lojze Slak.The [[Serbian folk music|folk music]] emerged in force during the 1970s and 1980s, and by the 1980s and 1990s the so-called novokomponovana muzika style appeared and gave place to controversial [[turbo-folk]] style. [[Lepa Brena]] in the 1980s become the most popular singer of the Yugoslavia, and a top-selling female recording artist with more than 40 million records sold.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=1016658 |title=Brena, bre |publisher=Vreme |date=27 October 2011|access-date=7 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402134949/http://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=1016658|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.story.rs/profili/lepa-brena |title=Lepa Brena biografija |publisher=Story|access-date=7 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503000903/http://www.story.rs/profili/lepa-brena|archive-date=3 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.blic.rs/Vesti/Drustvo/21919/Vlasnici-muzike-i-stranih-priznanja |title=Vlasnici muzike i stranih priznanja |publisher=Blic |date=3 December 2007|access-date=7 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029203952/http://www.blic.rs/Vesti/Drustvo/21919/Vlasnici-muzike-i-stranih-priznanja|archive-date=29 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Folk performers enjoyed great popularity and became constant presence in the tabloids and media. Yugoslav music scene in its diverse genres became known internationally, from traditional folklore music being appreciated worldwide, through rock-pop music being appreciated in Eastern, and lesser extent, Western Europe, to turbo-folk music being widely exported to neighboring countries.

==== Classical music ====

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In 1948, Yugoslavia was expelled from [[Cominform]].<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=862}} Upon this expulsion, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia no longer felt the need to engage in [[Stalinism|Stalinist]]-styled cultural policies which suppressed non-propagandist popular music.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=862}} However, throughout the 1950s, some Party officials remained antagonistic towards music from Western countries.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=|pages=868–869}} As the country sought to foster more relationships outside of the Eastern Bloc, Yugoslavia opened up more and more through the late 1950s.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=862}} During the 1950s, Yugoslavia welcomed and hosted many famous international stars.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=862}}

Yugoslavia's economy grew rapidly during the 1950s, enabling more resources to be allocated to consumer goods, including music.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=870}} The number of radios in the country increased dramatically, as did the production of [[Phonograph record|records]].<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=870}} While still tolerant of foreign music, the country's political leaders also sought to develop popular music which they felt embodied Yugoslavia's own national identity,<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=862}} and many continued to perceive American cultural influence as politically propagandistic.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=863}} In the 1950s, domestic popular music festivals and artists' associations were being established and promoted.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=|pages=868, 871}} Many popular Yugoslav artists emerged during this time, including notable names such as [[Đorđe Marjanović]], [[Gabi Novak]], [[Majda Sepe]], [[Zdenka Vučković]], and [[Vice Vukov]].<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=871}} The [[Popular music in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav rock scene]], which emerged in the late 1950s, generally followed Western European and American trends with local and Eastern European influence. During this time, the country had a heightened cultural exchange with [[Mexico]], which led to the emergence of a local genre of music which fused traditional Mexican elements, known as [[Yu-Mex]].<ref name=":0" /> The ascendance of Yugoslav popular music became embraced by the state, which would actively promote it abroad.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=871}} Yugoslavia entered into the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] in [[Eurovision Song Contest 1961|1961]], becoming the only self-proclaimed [[Socialism|socialist]], [[Eastern Europe]]an, and predominantly [[Slavs|Slavic]] country to do so.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=|pages=871–872}} Yugoslavia won the [[Eurovision Song Contest 1989|1989 Eurovision Song Contest]] following the performance of the song "[[Rock Me (Riva song)|Rock Me]]" by the Croatian pop band [[Riva (band)|Riva]], marking the country's only first place in the competition prior to its breakup.

Yugoslavia's entry into [[Eurovision Song Contest 1989|1989 Eurovision Song Contest]], "[[Rock Me (Riva song)|Rock Me]]", performed by the group [[Riva (band)|Riva]], won the contest, marking Yugoslavia's only first place in the competition during its history.

~~Notable~~The [[Popular music in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav rock scene]], which emerged in the late 1950s, generally followed Western European and American trends with influences from local traditional music and poetic tradition. By the end of the 1980s, the Yugoslav rock scene was noted as one of the richest and most vibrant rock scene in Europe, with a number of popular acts in [[rhythm & blues]], [[jazz rock]], [[progressive rock]], [[hard rock]], [[punk rock]], [[New wave music|new wave]], [[post-punk]], [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[synth-pop]], [[pop rock]], [[garage rock]], [[alternative rock]] and other genres. Most prominent Yugoslav rock acts included [[Atomsko Sklonište]], [[Azra]], [[Bajaga i Instruktori]], [[Đorđe Balašević]], [[Bijelo Dugme]], [[Buldožer]], [[Crvena Jabuka]], [[Zdravko Čolić]], [[Denis & Denis]], [[Divlje Jagode]], [[Disciplina Kičme]], [[Ekatarina Velika]], [[Električni Orgazam]], [[Film (band)|Film]], [[Galija]], [[Haustor]], [[Idoli]], [[Indexi]], [[Korni Grupa]], [[KUD Idijoti~~]], [[Laboratorija Zvuka~~]], [[Lačni Franz]], [[Laibach (band)|Laibach]], [[Leb i Sol]], [[Josipa Lisac]], [[Slađana Milošević]], [[Pankrti]], [[Paraf]], [[Parni Valjak]], [[Partibrejkers]], [[Pekinška Patka]], [[Plavi Orkestar]], [[Pop Mašina]], [[Prljavo Kazalište]], [[Psihomodo Pop]], [[Riblja Čorba]], [[September (band)|September]], [[Smak]], [[S Vremena Na Vreme]], [[Šarlo Akrobata]], [[Time (~~rock~~Yugoslav band)|Time]], [[U Škripcu]], [[Vatreni Poljubac]], [[Videosex]], [[YU Grupa]], [[Zabranjeno Pušenje]], [[Zana (band)|Zana]] and others. Yugoslavia was one of seven non-[[English-speaking world|English-speaking countries]] that took part in the [[Live Aid]] initiative, contributing with the all-star charity single "[[Za milion godina]]" and the corresponding concert held on the [[Red Star Stadium]].<ref name="rockovnik">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iu2bBHjC3zE ''Rockovnik'', "Pogledaj dom svoj, anđele (Jugoslovenska rock scena 1985)", YouTube.com]</ref>

=== Architectural heritage ===

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=== Football ===

The country's biggest footballing achievement came on the club level with [[Red Star Belgrade]] winning the [[1990–91 European Cup]], beating [[Olympique de Marseille]] in the [[1991 European Cup Final|final]] played on 29 May 1991.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://thesefootballtimes.co/2015/08/17/red-star-triumph-of-1991/ |title=Red Star and the immortal triumph of 1991 |last=Aspey |first=Jonathon |date=2015-08-17 |website=These Football Times |language=en-GB|access-date=2020-04-12|archive-date=24 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124123833/https://thesefootballtimes.co/2015/08/17/red-star-triumph-of-1991/|url-status=live}}</ref> Later that year, they became world club champions by beating [[Colo-Colo]] 3–0 in the [[1991 Intercontinental Cup|Intercontinental Cup]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.footballdatabase.eu/en/match/summary/1072537-etoile_rouge_belgrade-colo_colo |title=RS Belgrade 3-0 Colo Colo / Intercontinental Cup 1991 |website=~~www.footballdatabase.eu~~Football Database|access-date=2020-04-12 |~~archive~~url-~~date~~status=7dead ~~August 2020~~|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/~~20200807054155~~20210308052012/https://www.footballdatabase.eu/en/match/summary/1072537-etoile_rouge_belgrade-colo_colo |~~url~~archive-~~status~~date=~~live~~ Mar 8, 2021 }}</ref>

Previously, Red Star had reached the [[1978–79 UEFA Cup]] [[Two-legged tie|two-legged]] [[1979 UEFA Cup Final|final]], while their Belgrade [[Večiti derbi|cross-town rivals]] [[FK Partizan|Partizan]] had been the [[1965–66 European Cup]] [[1966 European Cup Final|finalists]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.europeancuphistory.com/euro66.html |title=Season 1965-66 |website=European Cup & Champions League History 1955-~~2020~~2024 ~~|website=www.europeancuphistory.com~~|access-date=2020-04-12|archive-date=15 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515033017/http://www.europeancuphistory.com/euro66.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[GNK Dinamo Zagreb|Dinamo Zagreb]] [[1967 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup Final|won]] the [[1966–67 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup]]. Furthermore, [[NK Čelik Zenica|Čelik Zenica]] (twice), Red Star Belgrade, [[FK Vojvodina|Vojvodina]], Partizan, [[NK Iskra Bugojno|Iskra Bugojno]], and [[FK Borac Banja Luka|Borac Banja Luka]] won the [[Mitropa Cup]]; while [[FK Velež Mostar|Velež Mostar]], [[HNK Rijeka|Rijeka]], Dinamo Zagreb, and [[FK Radnički Niš|Radnički Niš]], each won the [[Balkans Cup]].

On the national team level, [[Yugoslavia national football team|FPR/SFR Yugoslavia]] qualified for seven [[FIFA World Cup]]s, the best result coming in [[1962 FIFA World Cup|1962]] in [[Chile]] with a 4th-place finish (equalizing the Kingdom of Yugoslavia achievement from [[1930 FIFA World Cup|1930]]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/chile1962/matches/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517043327/http://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/chile1962/matches/|archive-date=17 May 2018 |title=1962 FIFA World Cup Chile ™ - Matches |last=FIFA.com |website=www.fifa.com |language=en-GB|access-date=2020-04-12}}</ref> The country also played in four [[UEFA European Football Championship|European Championships]]. The best results came in 1960 and 1968 when the team lost in the finals—in [[1960 European Nations' Cup Final|1960]] to Soviet Union and in [[UEFA Euro 1968 Final|1968]] to Italy.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season=1960/index.html |title=UEFA EURO 1960 - History |last=uefa.com |website=UEFA.com |date=11 May 2016 |language=en|access-date=2020-04-12|archive-date=23 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200423223953/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season=1960/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season=1968/index.html |title=UEFA EURO 1968 - History |last=uefa.com |website=UEFA.com |date=11 May 2016 |language=en|access-date=2020-04-12|archive-date=22 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422220704/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro/season=1968/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Yugoslavia was also the first non-Western European country to host a European Championship, [[UEFA Euro 1976]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025a-0eb2be3e9998-da51342d4529-1000--euro-1976-all-you-need-to-know/ |title=EURO 1976: all you need to know |last=UEFA.com |date=2020-02-14 |website=UEFA.com |language=en|access-date=2020-04-12|archive-date=30 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210630233627/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025a-0eb2be3e9998-da51342d4529-1000--euro-1976-all-you-need-to-know/|url-status=live}}</ref>

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== Legacy ==

{{Redirect|Former Yugoslavia|a later former country that was also referred to as Yugoslavia|Serbia and Montenegro{{!}}Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|a country that used to be called the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia|North Macedonia}}

~~{{Redirect|Former Yugoslavia|a country that used to be called the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia|North Macedonia}}~~

[[File:Former Yugoslavia 2008.PNG|thumb|upright=1.35|2008 map of the former Yugoslavia]]