Suleiman the Magnificent: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{Infobox_Monarch

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| name = Suleiman the Magnificent

| title = [[Sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]

| title 2 = [[Ottoman Caliphate|Caliph]]

| image =[[Image:EmperorSuleiman.jpg|200px]]

| caption = Suleiman I attributed to [[Titian]] c.1530

| reign = 1520–1566 (46 years)

| coronation = 1520

| full name = Sultan Suleiman Khan

| predecessor = [[Selim I]]

| successor = [[Selim II]]

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| suc-type = Heir Apparent

| consort = [[Roxelana|Hurrem Sultan]] (Roxelana)

| royal house =[[House of Osman]]

| father =[[Selim I]]

| mother = Hafsa Hatun

| date of birth ={{birth date|1494|11|6|mf=y}}

| place of birth =[[Trabzon]]

| date of death ={{death date and age|1566|9|7|1494|11|6|mf=y}}

| place of death =[[Szigetvár]], [[Hungary]]

| place of burial =[[Süleymaniye Mosque]], [[Istanbul]]

| spouse 2 = Gülbahar Sultan

| othertitles = Sultan of Sultans,<br /> The Shadow of God on Earth ([[Caliph]]),<br /> Caesar of all the lands of Rome

|}}

'''Suleiman I''' ({{lang-ota|سليمان}} ''Sulaymān'', {{lang-tr|Süleyman}}; almost always ''Kanuni Sultan Süleyman'' in [[Turkish language|Turkish]]) ([[November 6]], [[1494]] – [[September 5]]/[[September 6|6]], [[1566]]), was the tenth and longest-reigning [[Sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]], from [[1520]] to his death. He is known in [[Western world|the West]] as '''Suleiman the Magnificent'''<ref>Merriman.</ref> and in [[Eastern World|the East]], as '''the Lawgiver''' (in Turkish ''Kanuni''; {{lang-ar|القانونى}}, ''al‐Qānūnī''), for his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman legal system. Suleiman became the pre-eminent monarch of 16th century Europe, presiding over the apogee of the Ottoman Empire's military, political and economic power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies to conquer the Christian strongholds of [[Belgrade]], [[Rhodes]], and most of [[Hungary]] before his conquests were checked at the [[Siege of Vienna]] in 1529. He annexed most of the [[Middle East]] in his conflict with the [[Safavid dynasty|Persians]] and large swathes of [[North Africa]] as far west as [[Algeria]]. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the [[Mediterranean]] to the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref>Mansel, 61</ref>

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At the helm of an expanding empire, Suleiman personally instituted legislative changes relating to society, education, taxation, and criminal law. His canonical law (or the ''Kanuns'') fixed the form of the empire for centuries after his death. Not only was Suleiman a distinguished poet and goldsmith in his own right; he also became a great patron of culture, overseeing the golden age of the Ottoman Empire's [[Culture of the Ottoman Empire|artistic]], [[Turkish_literature#Ottoman_literature|literary]] and [[Ottoman_architecture#Classical_period_(1437-1703)|architectural]] development.<ref name=atil24>Atıl, 24.</ref>

In a break with Ottoman tradition, Suleiman married a [[harem]] girl who became [[Hurrem Sultan]], whose intrigues in the court and power over the Sultan have become as famous as Suleiman himself. Their son, [[Selim II]], succeeded Suleiman following his death in 1566 after 46 years of rule.

==Early life==

Suleiman was born in [[Trabzon]] along the coast of the [[Black Sea]], probably on [[November 6]] [[1494]].<ref>Clot, 25.</ref> At the age of seven, he was sent to study [[science]], [[history]], [[literature]], [[theology]], and [[military tactics]] in the schools of the [[Topkapı Palace]] in [[Istanbul]]. As a young man, he befriended [[Pargalı İbrahim Pasha|Ibrahim]], a slave who later became one of his most trusted advisers.<ref>Hope, [http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/save/hope/hope.html Suleiman The Magnificent]</ref> From the age of seventeen, young Suleiman was appointed as the governor of first [[Kaffa]] (Theodosia), then Sarukhan ([[Manisa]]) with a brief tenure at [[Edirne]] (Adrianople).<ref>Clot, 28.</ref> Upon the death of his father, [[Selim I]] (1512–20), Suleiman entered Istanbul and acceded to the throne as the tenth Ottoman Sultan. An early description of Suleiman, a few weeks following his accession, was provided by the [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] envoy [[Bartolomeo Contarini]]: "He is twenty-five years of age, tall, but wiry, and of a delicate complexion. His neck is a little too long, his face thin, and his nose aquiline. He has a shade of a moustache and a small beard; nevertheless he has a pleasant mien, though his skin tends to pallor. He is said to be a wise Lord, fond of study, and all men hope for good from his rule."<ref>Kinross, 175.</ref> Some historians claim that in his youth Suleiman had an admiration for [[Alexander the Great]].<ref>Lamb, 14.</ref><ref>Barber, 23.</ref> He was influenced by Alexander's vision of building a world empire that would encompass the east and the west, and this created a drive for his subsequent military campaigns in Asia and in Africa, as well as in Europe.

==Military campaigns==

===Conquests in Europe===

Upon succeeding his father, Suleiman began a series of military conquests, first putting down a revolt led by the Ottoman-appointed governor of [[Damascus]] in 1521. Suleiman soon made preparations for the conquest of [[Belgrade]] from the [[Kingdom of Hungary]]—something his great-grandfather [[Mehmed II]] had failed to achieve. Its capture was vital in eliminating the Hungarians who, following the defeats of the [[Serbs]], [[Bulgarians]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], remained the only formidable force who could block further Ottoman gains in Europe. Suleiman encircled [[Belgrade]] and began a series of heavy bombardments from an island in the [[Danube]]. With a garrison of only 700 men, and receiving no aid from Hungary, Belgrade fell in August 1521.<ref>Imber, 49.</ref>

[[Image:Semailname 47b.jpg|left|thumb|Suleiman as a young man]]

News of the conquest of one of Christendom's major strongholds spread fear across Europe. As the ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire to Istanbul was to note, "The capture of Belgrade was at the origin of the dramatic events which engulfed Hungary. It led to the death of [[Louis II of Hungary|King Lewis]], the capture of [[Buda]], the occupation of [[Transylvania]], the ruin of a flourishing kingdom and the fear of neighbouring nations that they would suffer the same fate…"<ref>Clot, 39.</ref>

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The road to Hungary and [[Austria]] lay open, but Suleiman diverted his attention to the Eastern [[Mediterranean]] island of [[Rhodes]] whose proximity to [[Asia Minor]] and the [[Levant]] had posed a perennial problem to Ottoman interests. In the summer of 1522, taking advantage of the navy he inherited from his father, Suleiman dispatched an armada of some 400 ships whilst personally leading an army of 100,000 across Asia Minor to a point opposite the island.<ref>Kinross, 176.</ref> Following a [[Siege of Rhodes (1522)|siege]] of five months with brutal encounters, Rhodes capitulated and Suleiman allowed the [[Knights of Rhodes]] to depart and form their new base in Malta.

As relations between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire deteriorated, Suleiman resumed his campaign in Eastern Europe and on [[August 29]], [[1526]], he defeated [[Louis II of Hungary]] (1516–26) at the [[Battle of Mohács]]. In its wake, Hungarian resistance collapsed and the Ottoman Empire became the pre-eminent power in Eastern Europe.<ref>Kinross, 187.</ref> Upon encountering the lifeless body of King Louis, Suleiman is said to have lamented: "I came indeed in arms against him; but it was not my wish that he should be thus cut off while he scarcely tasted the sweets of life and royalty."<ref>Severy, 580</ref><ref>Embree, [http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/04/embree/embree.htm Suleiman The Magnificent]</ref>

Under [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] and his brother Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria, the [[Habsburgs]] reoccupied Buda and took Hungary. As a result, in 1529, Suleiman once again marched through the valley of the Danube and regained control of Buda and in the following autumn laid [[Siege of Vienna|siege to Vienna]]. It was to be the Ottoman Empire's most ambitious expedition and the apogee of its drive towards the West. With a reinforced garrison of 16,000 men,<ref>{{cite book|last=Stephen|first=Turnbull|title=The Ottoman Empire 1326 - 1699|location=New York|publisher=Osprey|year=2003|pages=}}</ref> the Austrians inflicted upon Suleiman his first defeat, sowing the seeds of a bitter Ottoman-Hapsburg rivalry which lasted until the 20th century.<ref>Imber, 50.</ref> A second attempt to conquer Vienna failed in 1532, with Suleiman retreating before reaching the city. In both cases, the Ottoman army was plagued by bad weather (forcing them to leave behind essential siege equipment) and was hobbled by overstretched supply lines.<ref>Labib, 444.</ref>

By the 1540s a renewal of the conflict in Hungary presented Suleiman with the opportunity to avenge the defeat suffered at Vienna. Some Hungarian nobles proposed that [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria]] (1519–64), who was ruler of neighbouring [[Austria]] and tied to Louis II's family by marriage, be King of Hungary, citing previous agreements that the [[Habsburgs]] would take the Hungarian throne if Louis died without heirs.<ref>Imber, 52</ref> However, other nobles turned to the nobleman [[John Zápolya]] who, being supported by Suleiman, remained unrecognized by the Christian powers of Europe. In 1541 the Hapsburgs once again engaged in conflict with the Ottomans, attempting to lay siege to Buda. With their efforts repulsed, and more Hapsburg fortresses captured as a result,<ref>Imber, 53</ref> Ferdinand and his brother Charles V were forced to conclude a humiliating five-year treaty with Suleiman. Ferdinand renounced his claim to the Kingdom of Hungary and was forced to pay a fixed yearly sum to the Sultan for the Hungarian lands he continued to control. Of more symbolic importance, the treaty referred to Charles V not as 'Emperor', but in rather plainer terms as the 'King of Spain', leading Suleiman to consider himself the true 'Caesar'.<ref>Imber, 54</ref>

With his main European rivals subdued, Suleiman had assured the Ottoman Empire a powerful role in the political landscape of Europe.

===Conquests in Asia===

[[Image:Sueleymanname nahcevan.jpg|right|thumb|Miniature depicting Suleiman the Magnificent marching with an army in [[Nakhchivan]], summer 1554]]

As Suleiman stabilized his European frontiers, he now turned his attention to the ever present threat posed by the [[Shi'a]] [[Safavid dynasty]] of [[Persia]] ([[Iran]]). Two events in particular were to precipitate a recurrence of tensions. First, [[Shah]] [[Tahmasp]] had the [[Baghdad]] governor loyal to Suleiman killed and replaced with an adherent of the Shah, and second, the governor of Bitlis had defected and sworn allegiance to the Safavids.<ref name=imber51>Imber, 51.</ref> As a result, in 1533, Suleiman ordered his Grand Vizier Ibrahim Pasha to lead an army into Asia where he retook [[Bitlis]] and occupied [[Tabriz]] without resistance. Having joined Ibrahim in 1534, Suleiman made a push towards Persia, only to find the Shah sacrificing territory instead of facing a pitched battle, resorting to harassment of the Ottoman army as it proceeded along the harsh interior.<ref name=sicker206>Sicker, 206.</ref> When in the following year Suleiman and Ibrahim made a grand entrance into [[Baghdad]], its commander surrendered the city, thereby confirming Suleiman as the leader of the Islamic world and the legitimate successor to the [[Abbasid]] [[Caliphs]].<ref>Clot, 93.</ref>

Attempting to defeat the Shah once and for all, Suleiman embarked upon a second campaign in 1548–1549. As in the previous attempt, Tahmasp avoided confrontation with the Ottoman army and instead chose to retreat, torching [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azerbaijan]] in the process and exposing the Ottoman army to the harsh winter of the [[Caucasus]].<ref name=sicker206/> Suleiman abandoned the campaign with temporary Ottoman gains in Tabriz and the [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Azerbaijan region of Iran]], a lasting presence in the province of [[Van Province|Van]], and some forts in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref name=bartleby794>[http://www.bartleby.com/67/794.html 1548–49]</ref>

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In 1553 Suleiman began his third and final campaign against the Shah. Having initially lost territories in [[Erzurum]] to the Shah's son, Suleiman retaliated by recapturing Erzurum, crossing the Upper [[Euphrates]] and laying waste to parts of Persia. The Shah's army continued its strategy of avoiding the Ottomans, leading to a stalemate from which neither army made any significant gain. In 1554, a settlement was signed which was to conclude Suleiman's Asiatic campaigns. It included the return of Tabriz, but secured Baghdad, lower [[Mesopotamia]], the mouths of the river Euphrates and [[Tigris]], as well as part of the [[Persian Gulf]].<ref>Kinross, 236.</ref> The Shah also promised to cease all raids into Ottoman territory.<ref name=bartleby795>[http://www.bartleby.com/67/795.html 1553–55]</ref>

===Mediterranean and North Africa===

{{See also|Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha|Italian War of 1542–1546‎|Siege of Malta}}

[[Image:Battle of Preveza (1538).jpg|right|thumb|[[Barbarossa (Ottoman admiral)|Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha]] defeats the Holy League under the command of [[Andrea Doria]] at the [[Battle of Preveza]] in 1538]]

Having consolidated his conquests on land, Suleiman was greeted with the news that the fortress of [[Koroni]] in [[Morea]] (the modern [[Peloponnese]]) had been lost to [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V's]] admiral, [[Andrea Doria]]. The presence of the Spanish in the Eastern Mediterranean concerned Suleiman, who saw it as an early indication of Charles V's intention to rival Ottoman dominance in the region. Recognizing the need to reassert the navy's preeminence in the [[Mediterranean]], Suleiman appointed an exceptional naval commander in the form of [[Khair ad Din]], known to Europeans as [[Barbarossa (Ottoman admiral)|Barbarossa]]. Once appointed admiral-in-chief, Barbarossa was charged with rebuilding the Ottoman fleet, to such an extent that the Ottoman navy equalled in number those of all other Mediterranean countries put together.<ref>Clot, 87.</ref> In [[1535]] Charles V won an important victory against the Ottomans at [[Tunis]], which together with the war against [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] the following year, led Suleiman to accept proposals from [[Francis I of France]] to form an alliance against Charles.<ref name=imber51/> In [[1538]], the Spanish fleet was defeated by Barbarossa at the [[Battle of Preveza]], securing the eastern Mediterranean for the Turks for 33 years until the defeat at the [[Battle of Lepanto]] in [[1571]].

East of [[Morocco]], huge territories in [[North Africa]] were annexed. The [[Barbary States]] of [[Tripolitania]], [[Tunisia]], and [[Algeria]] became autonomous provinces of the Empire, serving as the leading edge of Suleiman's conflict with Charles V, whose attempt to drive out the Turks failed in 1541.<ref>Kinross, 227.</ref> The piracy carried on thereafter by the [[Barbary pirates]] of North Africa can be seen in the context of the wars against Spain. For a short period Ottoman expansion secured naval dominance in the Mediterranean. Ottoman navies also controlled the [[Red Sea]], and held the [[Persian Gulf]] until [[1554]], when their ships were defeated by the navy of the [[Portuguese Empire]]. The Portuguese had taken [[Ormus]] (in the [[Strait of Hormuz]]) in [[1515]] and would continue to vie with Suleiman's forces for control of [[Aden]], in present-day [[Yemen]].

[[Image:Siege of malta 1.jpg|The Siege of Malta in 1565: Arrival of the Turkish fleet, by [[Matteo Perez d' Aleccio]]|thumb|left]]

In [[1542]], facing a common Hapsburg enemy, Francis I sought to renew the Franco-Ottoman alliance. As a result, Suleiman dispatched one hundred galleys<ref>Kinross, 53.</ref> under Barbarossa to assist the French in the western Mediterranean. Barbarossa pillaged the coast of [[Naples]] and [[Sicily]] before reaching France where Francis made [[Toulon]] the Ottoman admirals naval headquarters. The same campaign had seen Barbarossa attack and capture [[Nice]] in 1543. By 1544, a peace between Francis I and Charles V had put a temporary end to the alliance between France and the Ottoman Empire.

Elsewhere in the Mediterranean, when the Knights Hospitallers were re-established as the [[Knights of Malta]] in 1530, their actions against Muslim navies quickly drew the ire of the Ottomans who assembled another massive army in order to dislodge the Knights from Malta. The Ottomans invaded in 1565, undertaking the [[Siege of Malta (1565)|Great Siege of Malta]], which began on [[May 18]] and lasted until [[September 8]], and is portrayed vividly in the frescoes of [[Matteo Perez d'Aleccio]] in the Hall of St. Michael and St. George. At first it seemed that this would be a repeat of the battle on [[Rhodes]], with most of Malta's cities destroyed and half the Knights killed in battle; but a relief force from [[Spain]] entered the battle, resulting in the loss of 30,000 Ottoman troops.<ref>[http://www.malta.com/about-malta/history-of-malta.html The History of Malta]</ref>

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==Administrative reforms==

[[Image:Suleiman bas-relief in the U.S. House of Representatives chamber.jpg|thumb|right|A [[bas-relief]] of Suleiman adorning the interior of the [[U.S. House of Representatives]]. It is one of 23 commemorating famous lawmakers throughout history.]]

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Whilst Sultan Suleiman was known as "the Magnificent" in the West, he was always ''Kanuni'' Suleiman or "The Lawgiver" to his own Ottoman subjects. As the historian Lord Kinross notes, "Not only was he a great military campaigner, a man of the sword, as his father and great-grandfather had been before him. He differed from them in the extent to which he was also a man of the pen. He was a great legislator, standing out in the eyes of his people as a high-minded sovereign and a magnanimous exponent of justice".<ref>Kinross, 205.</ref> The overriding law of the empire was the [[Shari'ah]], or Sacred Law, which as the divine law of [[Islam]] was outside of the Sultan's powers to change. Yet an area of distinct law known as the ''Kanuns'' (canonical legislation) was dependent on Suleiman's will alone, covering areas such as criminal law, land tenure and taxation.<ref>Imber, 244.</ref> He collected all the judgments that had been issued by the nine Ottoman Sultans who preceded him. After eliminating duplications and choosing between contradictory statements, he issued a single legal code, all the while being careful not to violate the basic laws of Islam.<ref>Greenblatt, 20.</ref> It was within this framework that Suleiman sought to reform the legislation to adapt to a rapidly changing empire. When the Kanun laws attained their final form, the code of laws became known as the ''kanun‐i Osmani'', or the "Ottoman laws". Suleiman's legal code was to last more than three hundred years.<ref>Greenblatt, 21.</ref>

Suleiman gave particular attention to the plight of the [[Rayah|rayas]], Christian subjects who worked the land of the [[Sipahi]]s. His Kanune Raya, or "Code of the Rayas", reformed the law governing levies and taxes to be paid by the rayas, raising their status above serfdom to the extent that Christian [[serfs]] would migrate to Turkish territories to benefit from the reforms.<ref>Kinross, 210.</ref> The Sultan also played a role in protecting the Jewish subjects of his empire for centuries to come. In late 1553 or 1554, on the suggestion of his favorite doctor and dentist, the Spanish Jew [[Moses Hamon]], the Sultan issued a [[firman (decree)|''firman'']] formally denouncing [[blood libels]] against the Jews.<ref>Mansel, 124.</ref> Furthermore, Suleiman enacted new criminal and police legislation, prescribing a set of fines for specific offences, as well as reducing the instances requiring death or mutilation. In the area of taxation, taxes were levied on various goods and produce, including animals, mines, profits of trade, and import-export duties. In addition to taxes, officials who had fallen into disrepute were likely to have their land and property confiscated by the Sultan.

Education was another important area for the Sultan. Schools attached to mosques and funded by religious foundations provided a largely free education to Muslim boys in advance of the Christian countries of the time.<ref name=kinross211>Kinross, 211.</ref> In his capital, Suleiman increased the number of ''mektebs'' (primary schools) to fourteen, teaching children to read and write as well as the principles of Islam. Children wishing further education could proceed to one of eight ''[[Madrasah|medrese]]s'' (colleges), whose studies included grammar, metaphysics, philosophy, astronomy, and astrology.<ref name=kinross211 /> Higher ''medreses'' provided education of university status, whose graduates became ''imams'' or teachers. Educational centers were often one of many buildings surrounding the courtyards of mosques, others included libraries, refectories, fountains, soup kitchens and hospitals for the benefit of the public.

==Cultural achievements==

[[Image:Tughra Suleiman.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tughra]] of Suleiman the Magnificent]]

Under Suleiman's patronage, the Ottoman empire entered the golden age of its [[Culture of the Ottoman Empire|cultural development]]. Hundreds of imperial artistic societies (called the ''Ehl-i Hiref'', "Community of the Talented") were administered at the Imperial seat, the [[Topkapı Palace]]. After an apprenticeship, artists and craftsmen could advance in rank within their field and were paid commensurate wages in quarterly annual installments. Payroll registers that survive testify to the breadth of Suleiman's patronage of the arts, the earliest of documents dating from 1526 list 40 societies with over 600 members. The ''Ehl-i Hiref'' attracted the empire's most talented artisans to the Sultan's court, both from the Islamic world and recently conquered territories in Europe, resulting in a blend of Islamic, Turkish and European cultures.<ref>Atıl, [http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198704/the.golden.age.of.ottoman.art.htm The Golden Age of Ottoman Art], 24–33</ref> Artisans in service of the court included painters, book binders, furriers, jewellers and goldsmiths. Whereas previous rulers had been influenced by [[Persian culture]] (Suleiman's father, Selim I, wrote poetry in Persian), Suleiman's patronage of the arts had seen the Ottoman Empire assert its own artistic legacy.<ref>Mansel, 70.</ref>

Suleiman himself was an accomplished poet, writing in Persian and Turkish under the [[nom de plume]] ''Muhibbi'' (Lover). Some of Suleiman's verses have become Turkish proverbs, such as the well-known ''Everyone aims at the same meaning, but many are the versions of the story''. When his young son Mehmed died in 1543, he composed a moving [[chronogram]] to commemorate the year: ''Peerless among princes, my Sultan Mehmed''.<ref name=byegm>Halman, [http://web.archive.org/web/20060309091926/http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayinlarimiz/NEWSPOT/1999/JulyAug/N6.htm Suleyman the Magnificent Poet]</ref><ref>[http://www.turkcebilgi.net/kim-kimdir/m/muhibbi-kanuni-sultan-suleyman-31612.html Muhibbî (Kanunî Sultan Süleyman){{tr icon}}] In Turkish the chronogram reads شهزاده‌لر گزيده‌سی سلطان محمدم(''Şehzadeler güzidesi Sultan Muhammed’üm''), in which the Arabic [[Abjad numerals]] total 950, the equivalent in the [[Islamic calendar]] of 1543 AD.</ref> In addition to Suleiman's own work, many great talents enlivened the literary world during Suleiman's rule, including [[Fuzuli]] and [[Baki]]. The literary historian E. J. W. Gibb observed that "at no time, even in Turkey, was greater encouragement given to poetry than during the reign of this Sultan".<ref name=byegm /> Suleiman's most famous verse is:

[[Image:Istanbul - Süleymaniye camii - Foto G. Dall'Orto 26-5-2006 - 15.jpg|thumb|right|[[Süleymaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul, built by [[Mimar Sinan]], Suleiman's chief architect]]

<br />{{quote|The people think of wealth and power as the greatest fate,</br>

But in this world a spell of health is the best state.</br>

What men call sovereignty is a worldly strife and constant war;</br>

Worship of God is the highest throne, the happiest of all estates.<ref>Mansel, 84.</ref>}}</br>

Suleiman also became renowned for sponsoring a series of monumental [[Ottoman_architecture#Classical_period_(1437-1703)|architectural]] developments within his empire. The Sultan sought to turn Istanbul into the center of Islamic civilization by a series of projects, including bridges, mosques, palaces and various charitable and social establishments. The greatest of these were built by the Sultan's chief architect, [[Mimar Sinan]], under whom Ottoman architecture reached its zenith. Sinan became responsible for over three hundred monuments throughout the empire, including his two masterpieces, the [[Süleymaniye Mosque|Süleymaniye]] and [[Selimiye Mosque|Selimiye]] mosques—the latter built in [[Edirne]] in the reign of Suleiman's son [[Selim II]]. Suleiman also restored the [[Dome of the Rock]] in Jerusalem and the Jerusalem city walls (which are the current walls of the [[Old City (Jerusalem)|Old City of Jerusalem]]), renovated the [[Kaaba]] in [[Mecca]], and constructed a complex in Damascus.<ref>Atıl, 26.</ref>

==Personal life==

===Hurrem Sultan===

[[Image:Khourrem.jpg|thumb|right|Hürrem Sultan (Roxolana)]]

Suleiman was infatuated with [[Roxelana|Hurrem Sultan]], a [[Harem (household)|harem]] girl of [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] origin. In the West foreign diplomats, taking notice of the palace gossip about her, called her "Russelazie" or "Roxolana", referring to her Slavic origins.<ref>Ahmed, 43.</ref> The daughter of an [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]] priest,<ref>Kinross, 236.</ref> she was captured and rose through the ranks of the Harem to become Suleiman's [[favourite]]. Breaking with two centuries of Ottoman tradition,<ref>Kinross, 236.</ref> a former concubine had thus become the legal wife of the Sultan, much to the astonishment of observers in the palace and the city.<ref>Mansel, 86.</ref> He also allowed Hurrem Sultan to remain with him at court for the rest of her life, breaking another tradition—that when imperial heirs came of age, they would be sent along with the imperial concubine who bore them to govern remote provinces of the Empire, never to return unless their progeny succeeded to the throne.<ref>Imber, 90.</ref>

Under his pen name, Muhibbi, Suleiman composed this poem for Roxolana:

<blockquote>"Throne of my lonely [[mihrab|niche]], my wealth, my love, my moonlight.</br>

My most sincere friend, my confidant, my very existence, my Sultan, my one and only love.</br>

The most beautiful among the beautiful…</br>

My springtime, my merry faced love, my daytime, my sweetheart, laughing leaf…</br>

My plants, my sweet, my rose, the one only who does not distress me in this world…</br>

My Istanbul, my [[Karaman|Caraman]], the earth of my [[Anatolia]]</br>

My [[Badakhshan]], my Baghdad and [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]</br>

My woman of the beautiful hair, my love of the slanted brow, my love of eyes full of mischief…</br>

I'll sing your praises always</br>

I, lover of the tormented heart, Muhibbi of the eyes full of tears, I am happy."<ref>[http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/sample-10.html A 400 Year Old Love Poem]</ref></blockquote>

===Ibrahim Pasha===

[[Image:Suleiman_Agostino.JPG|thumb|200px|right|[[Agostino Veneziano]]'s [[engraving]] of Suleiman the Magnificent.<ref>Agostino never saw the Sultan, but probably did see and sketch the helmet in Venice</ref> Note the 4 tiers on the helmet (which he had commissioned from [[Venice]], symbolizing his imperial power, and excelling the 3-tiered [[papal tiara]]).<ref>The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1968. "Turquerie" ''The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin'', New Series 26 (5): pp. 229.</ref> This was a most untypical piece of headgear for an Ottoman sultan, which he probably never normally wore, but which he placed beside him when receiving visitors, especially ambassadors. It was crowned with an enormous feather.<ref> Levey, 65</ref>]]

[[Pargalı İbrahim Pasha]] was the boyhood friend of Suleiman. Ibrahim was originally [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] and when young was educated at the [[Palace School]] under the [[devshirme]] system. Suleiman made him the royal [[Falconry|falconer]], then promoted him to first officer of the Royal Bedchamber.<ref>Mansel, 87</ref> Ibrahim Pasha rose to [[Grand Vizier]] in 1523 and commander-in-chief of all the armies. Suleiman also conferred upon Ibrahim Pasha the honor of ''beylerbey'' of [[Rumelia]], granting Ibrahim authority over all Turkish territories in Europe, as well as command of troops residing within them in times of war. According to a 17th century chronicler, Ibrahim had asked Suleiman not to promote him to such high positions, fearing for his safety; to which Suleiman replied that under his reign no matter what the circumstance, Ibrahim would never be put to death.<ref>Clot, 49.</ref>

Yet Ibrahim eventually fell from grace with the Sultan. During his thirteen years as Grand Vizier, his rapid rise to power and vast accumulation of wealth had made Ibrahim many enemies among the Sultan's court. Reports had reached the Sultan of Ibrahim's impudence during a campaign against the Persian Safavid empire: in particular his adoption of the title ''serasker sultan'' was seen as a grave affront to Suleiman.<ref name=kinross230>Kinross, 230.</ref>

Suleiman's suspicion of Ibrahim was worsened by a quarrel between the latter and the Minister of Finance Iskender Chelebi. The dispute ended in the disgrace of Chelebi on charges of intrigue, with Ibrahim convincing Suleiman to sentence the Minister to death. Before his death however, Chelebi's last words were to accuse Ibrahim of conspiracy against the Sultan.<ref name=kinross230 /> These dying words convinced Suleiman of Ibrahim's disloyalty,<ref>Kinross, 230.</ref> and on [[March 15]], [[1536]] Ibrahim's lifeless body was discovered in the Topkapi palace.

==Succession==

Suleiman's two wives had borne him eight sons, four of whom survived past the 1550s. They were [[Sehzade Mustafa|Mustafa]], [[Selim II|Selim]], Bayezid, and Jihangir. Of these, only Mustafa was not Hurrem Sultan's son, but rather Gülbahar Sultan's ("Rose of Spring"), and therefore preceded Hurrem's children in the order of succession. Hurrem was aware that should Mustafa become Sultan her own children would be strangled. Yet Mustafa was recognised as the most talented of all the brothers and was supported by [[Pargalı İbrahim Pasha]], who was by this time Suleiman's [[Grand Vizier]]. The Austrian ambassador [[Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq|Busbecq]] would note "Suleiman has among his children a son called Mustafa, marvellously well educated and prudent and of an age to rule, since he is 24 or 25 years old; may God never allow a Barbary of such strength to come near us", going on to talk of Mustafa's "remarkable natural gifts".<ref>Clot, 155.</ref>

[[Image:Suleiman Mohacs.jpg|right|thumb|Portrait of Suleiman by Nigari towards the end of his reign in 1560]]

Hurrem is usually held at least partly responsible for the intrigues in nominating a successor. Although she was Suleiman's wife, she exercised no official public role as her contemporary in England, [[Anne Boleyn]], had done.<ref>Mansel, 85</ref> This did not, however, prevent Hurrem from wielding powerful political influence. Since the Empire lacked any formal means of nominating a successor, succession usually involved the death of competing princes in order to avert civil unrest and rebellions. In attempting to avoid the execution of her sons, Hurrem used her influence to eliminate those who supported Mustafa's accession to the throne.<ref>Mansel, 84</ref>

Thus in power struggles apparently instigated by Hurrem,<ref>Mansel, 87</ref> Suleiman had Ibrahim murdered and replaced with her sympathetic son-in-law, Rustem Pasha. By 1552, when the campaign against Persia had begun with Rustem appointed commander-in-chief of the expedition, intrigues against Mustafa began. Rustem sent one of Suleiman's most trusted men to report that since Suleiman was not at the head of the army, the soldiers thought the time had come to put a younger prince on the throne; at the same time he spread rumors that Mustafa had proved receptive to the idea. Angered by what he came to believe were Mustafa's plans to claim the throne, the following summer Suleiman summoned him to his tent, stating he would "be able to clear himself of the crimes he was accused of and would have nothing to fear if he came".<ref>Clot, 157.</ref>

Mustafa was confronted with a choice: either he appeared before his father at the risk of being killed; or, if he refused to attend, he would be accused of betrayal. In the end, Mustafa chose to enter his father's tent, confident that the support of the army would protect him. Busbecq, who claims to have received an account from an eyewitness, describes Mustafa's final moments. As Mustafa entered his father's tent, Suleiman's [[Seraglio|eunuch]]s attacked Mustafa, with the young prince putting up a brave defence. Suleiman, separated from the struggle only by the linen hangings of the tent, peered through the chamber of his tent and "directed fierce and threatening glances upon the mutes, and by menacing gestures sternly rebuked their hesitation. Thereupon, the mutes in their alarm, redoubling their efforts, hurled the unhappy Mustafa to the ground and, throwing the bowstring round his neck, strangled him."<ref>Kinross, 239</ref>

Jihangir is said to have died of grief a few months after the news of his half-brother's murder.<ref>Mansel, 89</ref> The two surviving brothers, Bayezid and Selim, were given command in different parts of the empire. Within a few years, however, civil war broke out between the brothers, each supported by his loyal forces.<ref>Kinross, 240.</ref> With the aid of his father's army, Selim defeated Bayezid in [[Konya]] in 1559, leading the latter to seek refuge with the Persians along with his four sons. Following diplomatic exchanges, the Sultan demanded from the Persian Shah that Bayezid be either extradited or executed. In return for large amounts of gold, the Shah allowed a Turkish executioner to strangle Bayezid and his four sons,<ref>Mansel, 89</ref> clearing the path for Selim's succession to the throne seven years later. On [[September 5]], [[1566]] Suleiman, who had set out from Istanbul to command an expedition to Hungary, died—two nights before a [[Pyrrhic victory|pyrrhic]] Ottoman victory at the [[Battle of Szigetvár]] in Hungary.<ref>Imber, 60.</ref>

==Legacy==

[[Image:OttomanEmpireIn1683.png|thumb|right|200px|Suleiman I's conquests were followed by continuous territorial expansion until the Empire's peak in 1683]]

At the time of Suleiman's death the Ottoman Empire, with its unrivaled military strength, economic riches and territorial extent, was among the world's foremost powers.<ref>Clot, 298.</ref> Suleiman's conquests had brought under the control of the Empire the major [[Muslim]] cities ([[Mecca]], [[Medina]], [[Jerusalem]], [[Damascus]], and [[Baghdad]]), many [[Balkan peninsula|Balkan]] provinces (reaching present day [[Austria]]), and most of [[North Africa]]. His expansion into Europe had given the Ottoman Turks a powerful presence in the European balance of power. Indeed, such was the perceived threat of the Ottoman Empire under the reign of Suleiman that ambassador [[Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq|Busbecq]] warned of Europe's imminent conquest: "On [the Turks'] side are the resources of a mighty empire, strength unimpaired, habituation to victory, endurance of toil, unity, discipline, frugality and watchfulness... Can we doubt what the result will be?...When the Turks have settled with Persia, they will fly at our throats supported by the might of the whole East; how unprepared we are I dare not say."<ref>Lewis, 10.</ref>

Suleiman's legacy was not, however, merely in the military field. The French traveler [[Jean de Thévenot]] a century later bears witness to the "strong agricultural base of the country, the well being of the peasantry, the abundance of staple foods, and the pre-eminence of organization in Suleiman's government".<ref>Ahmed, 147.</ref> The administrative and legal reforms which earned him the name Law Giver ensured the Empire's survival long after his death, an achievement which "took many generations of decadent heirs to undo".<ref>Lamb, 325.</ref>

Through his personal patronage, Suleiman also presided over the Golden Age of the Ottoman Empire, representing the pinnacle of the Ottoman Turks' cultural achievement in the realm of architecture, literature, art, theology and philosophy.<ref>Atıl, 24.</ref><ref>Russell, [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE7D6163EF935A15752C0A961948260 The Age of Sultan Suleyman]</ref> Today the skyline of the [[Bosphorus]], and of many cities in modern Turkey and the former Ottoman provinces, are still adorned with the architectural works of [[Mimar Sinan]]. One of these, the [[Süleymaniye Mosque]], is the final resting place of Suleiman and Hurrem Sultan: they are buried in separate domed mausoleums attached to the mosque.

==Notes==

==References==

; Printed Sources

*{{cite book |last= Ahmed|first=Syed Z|title=The Zenith of an Empire : The Glory of the Suleiman the Magnificent and the Law Giver |year=2001|publisher=A.E.R. Publications|isbn= 978-0971587304}}

*{{cite book |last=Atıl |first=Esin |title=The Age of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent|year=1987 |publisher=National Gallery of Art |location= Washington, D.C.|isbn= 978-0894680984}}

*{{cite journal |url= http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198704/the.golden.age.of.ottoman.art.htm|title=The Golden Age of Ottoman Art|accessdate=2007-04-18 |journal=Saudi Aramco World |year=1987|month=July/August|volume=38|issue=4|pages=24–33 |issn=1530-5821 |location= Houston, Texas|publisher= Aramco Services Co|last=Atıl|first=Esin}}

*{{cite book |last=Barber|first=Noel|authorlink=Noel Barber|title= Lords of the Golden Horn : From Suleiman the Magnificent to Kamal Ataturk |publisher=Pan Books|location=London|year= 1976|isbn= 978-0330247351}}

*{{cite book |last= Clot|first= André |title=Suleiman the Magnificent : The Man, His Life, His Epoch|year= 1992 |publisher= Saqi Books |location= London|isbn= 978-0863561269}}

*{{cite book |last= Greenblatt |first= Miriam |title= Süleyman the Magnificent and the Ottoman Empire |year= 2003|publisher= Benchmark Books |location= New York |isbn= 978-0761414896}}

*{{cite book |last= Imber|first= Colin|title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650 : The Structure of Power |year= 2002|publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |location= New York |isbn= 978-0333613863}}

*{{cite book |last=Kinross|first=Patrick|authorlink=John Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross|title=The Ottoman centuries : The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire |publisher=Morrow |year=1979 |location=New York|isbn= 978-0688080938 }}

*{{cite journal|journal=International journal of Middle East studies|last=Labib|first= Subhi|title=The Era of Suleyman the Magnificent: Crisis of Orientation |location= London|publisher= Cambridge University Press|month= November|year= 1979|pages= 435–451|volume=10|issue= 4|issn=0020-7438}}

*{{cite book |last= Lamb|first= Harold|authorlink=Harold Lamb |title=Suleiman, the Magnificent, Sultan of the East|location= Garden City, N.Y. |publisher=Doubleday |year=1951 |oclc=397000}}

*{{cite book |last= Levey|first= Michael|authorlink=Michael Levey |title=The World of Ottoman Art |publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=1975 |isbn=0500270651}}

*{{cite book |last= Lewis |first= Bernard|authorlink= Bernard Lewis |title=What Went Wrong? : Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response|year= 2002|publisher= Phoenix|location= London |isbn= 978-0753816752}}

*{{cite book |last=Mansel |first=Phillip |title=Constantinople : City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924|year= 1998|publisher= St. Martin's Griffin |location= New York |isbn= 978-0312187088}}

*{{cite book |last=Merriman|first= Roger Bigelow |title= Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566|location= Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher= Harvard University Press|year= 1944|oclc=784228}}

*{{cite journal|journal=National geographic|last=Severy|first=Merle |title= The World of Süleyman the Magnificent |location= Washington, D.C. |publisher= National Geographic Society |month= November |year=1987 |pages=552–601 |volume=172|issue=5 |issn=0027-9358}}

*{{cite book |last= Sicker|first= Martin |title= The Islamic World In Ascendancy : From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna|year= 2000 |publisher= Praeger |location= Westport, Connecticut |isbn= 978-0275968922}}

*{{cite journal |title= Suleiman The Lawgiver|accessdate=2007-04-18 |journal= Saudi Aramco World |year=1964 |month= March/April |volume=15 |issue=2|pages=8–10 |issn=1530-5821 |location= Houston, Texas|publisher= Aramco Services Co|url= http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196402/.suleiman.the.lawgiver..htm}}</div>

; On-line sources

*{{cite web |url= http://www.bartleby.com/67/794.html|title= 1548-49|accessdate=2007-04-18 |work=The Encyclopedia of World History|year=2001}}

*{{cite web |url= http://www.bartleby.com/67/795.html|title= 1553-55|accessdate=2007-04-18 |work=The Encyclopedia of World History|year=2001}}

*{{cite web |url=http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/sample-10.html |title= A 400 Year Old Love Poem|accessdate=2007-04-18 |work=Women in World History Curriculum Showcase}}

*{{cite web |url= http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/04/embree/embree.htm|title=Suleiman The Magnificent |accessdate=2007-04-18 |first= Mark|last= Embree|year=2004}}

*{{cite web |archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20060309091926/http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayinlarimiz/NEWSPOT/1999/JulyAug/N6.htm |title= Suleyman the Magnificent Poet|archivedate=2006-03-09|url= http://www.byegm.gov.tr/yayinlarimiz/NEWSPOT/1999/JulyAug/N6.htm |accessdate=2007-04-18 |last=Halman|first=Talat|year=1988}}

*{{cite web |url= http://www.malta.com/about-malta/history-of-malta.html|title=The History of Malta |accessdate=2007-04-27 |first= |last=|year=2007}}

*{{cite web|url= http://www.ccds.charlotte.nc.us/History/MidEast/save/hope/hope.html |title=Suleiman The Magnificent|accessdate=2007-04-18|last=Hope|first=Maggie}}

*{{cite web|url=http://www.turkcebilgi.net/kim-kimdir/m/muhibbi-kanuni-sultan-suleyman-31612.html |title=Muhibbî (Kanunî Sultan Süleyman) |accessdate=2008-01-13 |work=Türkçe Bilgi—Kim kimdir? |language=Turkish }}

*{{cite news |url= http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE7D6163EF935A15752C0A961948260|title=The Age of Sultan Suleyman |accessdate=2007-08-09 |first= John |last= Russell|date=[[2007-01-26]]|publisher=New York Times}}

</div>

==Further reading==

*{{cite book |last= Bridge |first= Anthony|title=Suleiman the Magnificent, Scourge of Heaven |year= 1983 |location= New York |publisher= F. Watts |oclc=9853956}}

*{{cite book |last= Downey |first= Fairfax Davis |title= The Grand Turke, Suleyman the Magnificent, sultan of the Ottomans |year= |publisher= Minton, Balch & Company |location= New York|oclc=25776191}}

*{{cite web |url = http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/OTTOMAN/SULEYMAN.HTM |last= Hooker|first= Richard |title= The Ottomans: Suleyman |accessdate=2007-09-02 }}

*{{cite book |last= Lybyer|first= Albert Howe|title=The government of the Ottoman empire in the time of Suleiman the Magnificent |year= 1913 |location= Cambridge, Massachusetts |publisher= Harvard University Press |oclc=1562148}}

</div>

==External links==

*[http://www.sinanasaygi.com/en/eserler.asp?action=eserDetay&ID=77 Sultan Suleyman Tomb]

*[http://www.paradoxplace.com/Perspectives/Genl%20Images/Single%20Frames/Suleiman.htm Portraits and Tughra of Suleiman]

{{s-hou|[[Ottoman Dynasty|House of Osman]]||[[November 6]], [[1494]]||[[September 5]], [[1566]]}}

{{s-ttl|title=[[Ottoman Dynasty#Heads of the House|Sultan of the Ottoman Empire]]|years=Sep 22, 1520 – Sep 5, 1566}}

{{s-ttl|title=[[List of caliphs|Caliph of Islam]]|years=Sep 22, 1520 – Sep 5, 1566}}

{{Persondata

| NAME=Suleyman I

| ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Suleiman the Magnificent

| SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Sultan]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]

| DATE OF BIRTH=[[November 6]], [[1494]]

| PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Trabzon]]

| DATE OF DEATH=[[September 6]], [[1566]]

| PLACE OF DEATH=[[Szigetvar]], [[Hungary]]

}}

[[Category:Sultans of the Ottoman Empire]]

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[[af:Suleiman die Manjifieke]]

[[ar:سليمان القانوني]]

[[ast:Solimán el Magníficu]]

[[az:Sultan Süleyman Qanuni]]

[[bs:Sulejman I]]

[[br:Suleiman ar Meurdezus]]

[[bg:Сюлейман I (Османска империя)]]

[[ca:Solimà I el Magnífic]]

[[cs:Sulejman I.]]

[[da:Süleyman 1.]]

[[de:Süleyman I.]]

[[el:Σουλεϊμάν Α΄ ο Μεγαλοπρεπής]]

[[es:Suleiman Kanuni]]

[[eo:Sulejmano la 1-a]]

[[fa:سلیمان اول]]

[[fr:Soliman le Magnifique]]

[[gl:Suleiman I]]

[[ko:쉴레이만 1세]]

[[hr:Sulejman I.]]

[[id:Suleiman I]]

[[it:Solimano il Magnifico]]

[[he:סולימאן הראשון]]

[[ka:სულეიმან I]]

[[lv:Sulejmans I]]

[[hu:I. Szulejmán]]

[[ml:സുല്‍ത്താന്‍ സുലെയ്മാന്‍]]

[[ms:Sulaiman al-Qanuni]]

[[nl:Süleyman I]]

[[ja:スレイマン1世]]

[[no:Suleiman I den store]]

[[pl:Sulejman I Wspaniały]]

[[pt:Solimão, o Magnífico]]

[[ro:Soliman I]]

[[ru:Сулейман I]]

[[simple:Suleiman the Magnificent]]

[[sk:Süleyman I.]]

[[sr:Сулејман I]]

[[sh:Sulejman I.]]

[[fi:Suleiman Suuri]]

[[sv:Süleyman I]]

[[vi:Suleiman I]]

[[tr:Kanuni Sultan Süleyman]]

[[uk:Сулейман I Пишний]]

[[ur:سلیمان اعظم]]

[[zh:苏莱曼一世]]