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'{{Short description|Vicious cycle that reinforces poverty}} {{for|the theory of how welfare support can affect employment, known in Britain as the "poverty trap"|Welfare trap}} In [[economics]], a '''cycle of poverty''' or '''poverty trap''' is caused by [[self-reinforcing cycle|self-reinforcing mechanisms]] that cause [[poverty]], once it exists, to persist unless there is outside intervention.<ref>Costas Azariadis and John Stachurski, "Poverty Traps," ''Handbook of Economic Growth'', 2005, 326.</ref> It can persist across generations, and when applied to developing countries, is also known as a '''development trap'''.<ref name="Hutchinson"/> Families trapped in the cycle of poverty have few to no resources. There are many [[feedback loop|self-reinforcing]] [[disadvantaged|disadvantages]] that make it virtually impossible for individuals to break the cycle.<ref>Marger (2008). Examples of these disadvantages working in a circular process would be: economic decline, low personal income, no funds for school, which leads to lack of education. The lack of education results in unemployment and lastly low national productivity. ''Social Inequality: Patterns and Processes.'' McGraw Hill Publishing. 4th edition. {{ISBN|0-07-352815-3}}</ref> This occurs when [[poverty|poor people]] do not have the resources necessary to escape poverty, such as [[financial capital]], [[education]], or connections. Impoverished individuals do not have access to economic and social resources as a result of their poverty. This lack may increase their poverty. This could mean that the poor remain poor throughout their lives.<ref name="Hutchinson">[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Cycle+of+poverty Hutchinson Encyclopedia], Cycle of poverty</ref> Controversial educational psychologist [[Ruby K. Payne]], author of ''A Framework for Understanding Poverty'', distinguishes between '''situational poverty''', which can generally be traced to a specific incident within the lifetimes of the person or family members in poverty, and '''generational poverty''', which is a cycle that passes from generation to generation, and goes on to argue that generational poverty has its own distinct culture and belief patterns.<ref>Payne, R. (2005). ''A framework for understanding poverty'' (4th edition). Highland, TX: aha! Process, Inc.</ref> Measures of [[social mobility]] examine how frequently poor people become wealthier, and how often children are wealthier or achieve higher income than their parents. ==Causes of the cycle== === Economic factors === According to the United States Census, in 2012 people aged 18–64 living in poverty in the country gave the reason they did not work, by category:<ref>[https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/09/why-the-poor-dont-work-according-to-the-poor/279900/ Why the Poor Don't Work, According to the Poor]</ref> * 31% - Ill or disabled * 26% - Home or family reasons * 21% - School or other * 13% - Cannot find work * 8% - Retired early Some activities can also cost poor people more than wealthier people. For example, if unable to afford the first month's rent and security deposit for a typical apartment lease, people sometimes must live in a hotel or motel at a higher daily rate. If unable to afford an apartment with a refrigerator, kitchen, and stove, people may need to spend more on prepared meals than if they could cook for themselves and store leftovers.<ref name="Nickel">Nickel and Dimed</ref> In the case of banking, people who cannot maintain a [[minimum daily balance]] in a savings account are often charged fees by the bank, whereas people with larger amounts of wealth can earn interest on savings and substantial returns from investments. [[Unbanked]] people must use higher-cost [[alternative financial services]], such as [[check-cashing service]]s for payroll and [[money order]]s for transferring to other people. People who have had previous credit problems, such as overdrafting an account, may not be eligible to open a checking or savings account. Major reasons for not opening a bank account include not trusting banks, being concerned about not making a payment due to a bank error or delay, not understanding how banks work, and not having enough money to qualify for a free account.<ref>[https://think.kera.org/2015/03/19/a-place-called-jubilee/ A Place Called Jubilee]</ref> Though most industrialized countries have free universal health care, in the United States and many developing countries, people with little savings often postpone expensive medical treatment as long as possible. This can cause a relatively small medical condition to become a serious condition that costs more to treat, and possibly causing lost wages due to missed hourly work. (Though poor people may have lower overall personal medical expenses simply because illnesses and medical conditions go untreated, and on average life span is shorter.) Higher-income workers typically have medical insurance which prevents them from experiencing excessive costs and often provides free [[preventive care]] for example. In addition to personal savings they can use, higher-income workers are also more likely to be salaried and get [[sick time]] that prevents them from losing wages while seeking treatment.{{Cn|date=July 2023}} Because no skills or experience are required, some people in poverty make money by volunteering for medical studies or [[Plasmapheresis|donating blood plasma]].<ref>[https://think.kera.org/2015/09/01/one-day-two-dollars/ One Day, Two Dollars]</ref> === Internal and external factors sustaining poverty === Amongst the most popular characterizations of the ongoing experience of poverty are that: # It is systemic or institutionalized or # A person is misguided by emotional challenges driven by historical experiences or # A person is affected by a mental disability, or a combination of all three reasons (Bertrand, Mullainathan, & Shafir, 2004<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertrand |first1=Marianne |last2=Mullainathan |first2=Sendhil |last3=Shafir |first3=Eldar |title=A Behavioral-Economics View of Poverty |journal=American Economic Review |date=1 April 2004 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=419–423 |doi=10.1257/0002828041302019 |s2cid=2865749 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:2907437 }}</ref>). ==== Systemic factors ==== Donald Curtis (2006),<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Curtis |first1=Donald |title=Mind sets and methods: poverty strategies and the awkward potential of the enabling state |journal=International Journal of Public Sector Management |date=February 2006 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=150–164 |doi=10.1108/09513550610650419 }}</ref> a researcher at the School of Public Policy in the United Kingdom, identified that governments regard the welfare system as an [[enabling]] task. Curtis (2006)<ref name=":0" /> maintained, however, that the system lacks cohesiveness, and is not designed to be an empowerment tool. For example, outside parties are funded to manage the effort without much oversight creating a disconnected system, for which no one leads (Curtis, 2006).<ref name=":0" /> The result is mismanagement of budget without forwarding progress, and those that remain in the poverty loophole are accused of draining the system (Curtis, 2006).<ref name=":0" /> ==== Bias ==== Jill Suttie (2018),<ref>Suttie, J. (2017, January 31). How Adults Communicate Bias to Children. Retrieved June 20, 2019, from https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_adults_communicate_bias_to_children</ref> wrote that implicit bias can be transferred nonverbally to children with no more than a look or a gesture, and as such is a learned behavior. Critical thinking skills can ward off implicit bias, but without education and practice, habitual thoughts can cloud judgment and poorly affect future decisions. ==== Decision-making ==== A Dartmouth College (2016)<ref>Dartmouth College. (2016, April 26). Bias in how we learn and make decisions. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160426115455.htm</ref> study reported that probabilistic decision-making follows prior-based knowledge of failure in similar situations. Rather than choose success, people respond as if the failure has already taken place. Those who have experienced intergenerational poverty are most susceptible to this kind of learned behavior (Wagmiller & Adelman, 2009).<ref name=":1">Wagmiller, R. L., & Adelman, R. M. (2009, November 30). NCCP | Childhood and Intergenerational Poverty. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_909.html</ref> ==== Intergenerational ==== Professors of Sociology Wagmiller and Adelman (2009)<ref name=":1" /> asserted that roughly 35–46% of people who have experienced hardship in young and middle adulthood also experienced moderate to severe poverty in childhood. As of 2018, 7.5 million people experienced poverty in California alone (Downs, 2018).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Downs |first1=Ray |title=Census Bureau: California has highest poverty rate in U.S. |url=https://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2018/09/13/Census-Bureau-California-has-highest-poverty-rate-in-US/1611536887413/ |work=UPI |date=13 September 2018 }}</ref> ==== Mental illness ==== In a qualitative study, Rudnick et al., (2014),<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Rudnick |first1=Abraham |last2=Montgomery |first2=Phyllis |last3=Coatsworth-Puspoky |first3=Robin |last4=Cohen |first4=Benita |last5=Forchuk |first5=Cheryl |last6=Lahey |first6=Pam |last7=Perry |first7=Stewart |last8=Schofield |first8=Ruth |title=Perspectives of social justice among people living with mental illness and poverty: a qualitative study |journal=Journal of Poverty and Social Justice |date=1 June 2014 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=147–157 |doi=10.1332/175982714X14007697173759 }}</ref> studied people living in poverty with mental illness and determined that participants felt that wellness care, nutrition, housing, and jobs were severely lacking. Respondents asserted that the most significant problem was access to quality services; bureaucratic systems appear to be devoid of logic and treatment by providers were often unaccommodating and uncooperative (Rudnick et al., 2014).<ref name=":2" /> ==== Lowered productivity ==== The stress of worrying about one's personal finances can cause lower productivity. One study on factory workers in India found payment earlier in the work period increased average worker output by 6.2%.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Poverty Makes Workers Less Productive |website=[[NPR]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623223634/https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2021/02/02/961910289/how-poverty-makes-workers-less-productive |archive-date=2023-06-23 |url-status=live |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2021/02/02/961910289/how-poverty-makes-workers-less-productive}}</ref> ===Choices and culture=== According to a 2009 and 2011 study made by the [[Brookings Institution]], people who finish high school, get a full-time job, and wait until age 21 to marry and have children end up with a poverty rate of only 2%, whereas people who follow none of the steps end up with a poverty rate of 76%.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140801173932/http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2011/12/23-mobility-opportunity-haskins Mobility Is a Problem; Now What?], Brookings Institution, December 23, 2011</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130902191532/http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/events/2009/10/27%20opportunity%20society/1027_opportunity_society_presentation.pdf Creating an Opportunity Society], Brookings Institution, October 27, 2009, page 15</ref> === Early childhood adversity and basic needs stressors contributing to the cycle of generational poverty === *The stress of early childhood adversities, including basic need stressors and, at times, abuse and neglect are major causes of generational poverty. Studies have shown that the trauma of child abuse manifests negatively in adult life in overall health and even in employment status.<ref name="Metzler, M. 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Metzler |first1=Marilyn |last2=Merrick |first2=Melissa T. |last3=Klevens |first3=Joanne |last4=Ports |first4=Katie A. |last5=Ford |first5=Derek C. |title=Adverse childhood experiences and life opportunities: Shifting the narrative |journal=Children and Youth Services Review |date=January 2017 |volume=72 |pages=141–149 |doi=10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.10.021 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Abuse and neglect are potential adversities facing those in poverty, the adversity that is shared among all below the poverty line is the daily stress over basic needs. "The stress of meeting basic needs takes all precedent in the family, and children learn that the only way to survive is to focus on getting basic needs met".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Raupp |first1=Andrew B. |title=Council Post: Using Technology To Combat Intergenerational Poverty |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2017/09/06/using-technology-to-combat-intergenerational-poverty/ |work=Forbes |date=6 September 2017 }}</ref> Every member of a household in poverty lives the struggle of basic needs stressors and is impacted by it. The ability to secure and pay for childcare is another contributing factor to the problems those in poverty have with finding and keeping a job.<ref name=Wooton2017>{{cite news |last1=Wooton |first1=Julie |title=Report: Two-Generation Approach is Needed to Break Poverty Cycle |url=https://magicvalley.com/news/local/report-two-generation-approach-is-needed-to-break-poverty-cycle/article_eae8962b-3f06-5621-9799-d620fec8e6cc.html |work=Twin Falls Times-News |date=24 November 2017 }}</ref> These stressors are not just unpleasant, they are catastrophic to a body's health and development. Exposure to chronic stress can induce changes in the architecture of different regions of the developing brain (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus), which can impact a range of important functions, such as regulating the stress response, attention, memory, planning, and learning new skills, and also contribute to dysregulation of inflammatory response systems that can lead to a chronic "wear and tear" effect on multiple organ systems.<ref name="Metzler, M. 2017"/>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=July 2023}} Chronic stress is detrimental to our health and has even been proven to harm memory and organs, including the brain. Working memory, defined as a human's capacity to store information in the brain for immediate use, is known to be shorter for children raised in poverty versus those raised in even a middle-class environment.<ref>{{cite news |title=I am just a poor boy though my story's seldom told |newspaper=The Economist |date=4 April 2009 |volume=391 |issue=8625 |pages=82–83 |id={{ProQuest|223987596}} |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2009/04/02/i-am-just-a-poor-boy-though-my-storys-seldom-told }}</ref> Children suffering through basic needs stressors from the earliest of years have to work harder than their peers to learn and absorb information. ==Family background== A 2002 research paper titled "The Changing Effect of Family Background on the Incomes of American Adults" analyzed changes in the determinants of [[family income]] between 1961 and 1999, focusing on the effect of parental education, occupational rank, income, marital status, family size, region of residence, [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], and [[ethnic group|ethnicity]]. The paper (1) outlines a simple framework for thinking about how family background affects children's family and income, (2) summarizes previous research on trends in intergenerational inheritance in the United States, (3) describes the data used as a basis for the research which it describes, (4) discusses trends in [[Economic inequality|inequality]] among parents, (5) describes how the effects of parental inequality changed between 1961 and 1999, (6) contrasts effects at the top and bottom of the distribution, and (7) discusses whether intergenerational correlations of zero would be desirable. The paper concludes by posing the question of whether reducing the intergenerational correlation is an efficient strategy for reducing poverty or inequality. Because improving the skills of disadvantaged children seems relatively easy, it is an attractive strategy. However, judging by American experience since the 1960s, improving the skills of disadvantaged children has proved difficult. As a result, the paper suggests, there are probably cheaper and easier ways to reduce poverty and inequality, such as supplementing the wages of the poor or changing [[immigration]] policy so that it drives down the relative wages of skilled rather than unskilled workers. These alternative strategies would not reduce intergenerational correlations, but they would reduce the economic gap between children who started life with all the disadvantages instead of all the advantages.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7838.html |title=Family Background and Economic Success |editor1=Samuel Bowles |editor2=Herbert Gintis |chapter=The Changing Effect of Family Background |chapter-url=https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ksg.harvard.edu%2Finequality%2FSeminar%2FPapers%2FJencks.pdf&date=2008-01-04 |first=Christopher |last=Jencks |author2=David J. Harding |author3=Leonard M. Lopoo |author4=Susan E. Mayer |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780691136202 }}</ref> Another paper, titled ''Do poor children become poor adults?'', which was originally presented at a 2004 symposium on the future of children from disadvantaged families in France, and was later included in a 2006 collection of papers related to the theme of the dynamics of [[Economic inequality|inequality]] and poverty, discusses generational [[Economic mobility|income mobility]] in North America and Europe. The paper opens by observing that in the United States almost one half of children born to low income parents become low income adults, four in ten in the United Kingdom, and one-third in Canada. The paper goes on to observe that rich children also tend to become rich adults—four in ten in the U.S. and the U.K., and as many as one-third in Canada. The paper argues, however, that money is not the only or even the most important factor influencing intergenerational income mobility. The rewards to higher skilled and/or higher educated individuals in the [[labour economics|labor market]] and the opportunities for children to obtain the required skills and credentials are two important factors.{{clarify|reason=sentence show signs of editing that have altered its original meaning. It doesn't seem to make sense anymore. Too long maybe?|date=August 2014}} Conclusions that income transfers to lower income individuals may be important to children but they should not be counted on to strongly promote generational mobility. The paper recommends that governments focus on investments in children to ensure that they have the skills and opportunities to succeed in the labor market, and observes that though this has historically meant promoting access to higher and higher levels of education, it is becoming increasingly important that attention be paid to [[preschool education|preschool]] and early childhood [[education]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mJlKOHGaSaAC |title=Dynamics of Inequality and Poverty |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Creedy |editor2-first=Guyonne |editor2-last=Kalb |pages=143–88 |chapter=Do Poor Children Become Poor Adults |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mJlKOHGaSaAC&pg=PA143&ei=KdZ-R9TFFouotAOEvLWcCw&sig=xujAA5avuWMdAZ-4zoXFhv_tMHE#PPA143,M1 <!-- alternate url for chapter content: https://web.archive.org/web/20040620034722/http://www.cerc.gouv.fr/meetings/colloque_avril2004/Corak.pdf --> |last=Corak |first=Miles |publisher=Elsevier |year=2006 |isbn=0-7623-1350-1 }}</ref> ===Lack of jobs due to deindustrialization=== {{main|Spatial mismatch}} Sociologist [[William Julius Wilson]] has said that the [[economic restructuring]] of changes from manufacturing to a service-based economy has led to a high percentage of joblessness in the inner-cities and with it a loss of skills and an inability to find jobs. This "mismatch" of skills to jobs available is said to be the main driver of poverty.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pease |first1=John |last2=Martin |first2=Lee |title=Want Ads and Jobs for the Poor: A Glaring Mismatch |journal=Sociological Forum |date=1997 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=545–564 |doi=10.1023/A:1022122723218 |jstor=684732 |s2cid=150443573 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/684732 |access-date=30 May 2023 |issn=0884-8971}}</ref> ===Effects of modern education=== Research shows that schools with students who perform lower than the norm are also those hiring least-qualified teachers as a result of new teachers generally working in the area that they grew up in. This leads to certain schools not producing many students who enter [[tertiary education]]. [[graduation|Graduates]] who previously attended these schools are not as skilled as they would be if they had gone to a school with higher-qualified instructors. This leads to education perpetuating a cycle of poverty. People who choose to work in the schools close to them do not adequately supply the school with enough teachers. The schools must then outsource their teachers from other areas. [[Susanna Loeb]] from the School of Education at Stanford conducted a study and found that teachers who are brought in from the suburbs are 10 times more likely to transfer out of the school after their initial year. The fact that the teachers from the suburbs leave appears to be an influential factor for schools hiring more teachers from that area. The lack of adequate education for children is part of what allows for the cycle of poverty to continue.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{EBSCOhost|22188997}} |title=Modern education's 'cycle of poverty' |date=September 2006 |journal=USA Today Magazine |volume=135 |issue=2736 |page=6 }}</ref> The problem undergoing this is the lack of updating the knowledge of the staff. Schools have continued to conduct professional development the same way they have for decades.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morrissey |first1=Taryn W. |last2=Vinopal |first2=Katie |title=Center-based early care and education and children's school readiness: Do impacts vary by neighborhood poverty? |journal=Developmental Psychology |date=April 2018 |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=757–771 |doi=10.1037/dev0000470 |pmid=29154645 |s2cid=4577964 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/preprint/Center-based_early_care_and_education_and_children_s_school_readiness_Do_impacts_vary_by_neighborhood_poverty_/23892117 }}</ref> ===Culture of poverty=== Another theory for the perpetual cycle of poverty is that poor people have their own culture with a different set of values and beliefs that keep them trapped within that cycle from generation to generation. This theory has been explored by Ruby K. Payne in her book ''A Framework for Understanding Poverty''. In this book she explains how a [[Social class in the United States|social class system in the United States]] exists, where there is a wealthy upper class, a middle class, and the working poor class. These classes each have their own set of rules and values, which differ from each other. To understand the culture of poverty, Payne describes how these rules affect the poor and tend to keep them trapped in this continual cycle. Time is treated differently by the poor; they generally do not plan ahead but simply live in the moment, which keeps them from saving money that could help their children escape poverty. Payne emphasizes how important it is when working with the poor to understand their unique cultural differences so that one does not get frustrated but instead tries to work with them on their ideologies and help them to understand how they can help themselves and their children escape the cycle. One aspect of generational poverty is a [[learned helplessness]] that is passed from parents to children; a mentality that there is no way for one to get out of poverty and so in order to make the best of the situation one must enjoy what one can when one can. This leads to such habits as spending money immediately, often on unnecessary goods such as alcohol and cigarettes, thus teaching their children to do the same and trapping them in poverty. Another important point Payne makes is that leaving poverty is not as simple as acquiring money and moving into a higher class but also includes giving up certain relationships in exchange for achievement. A student's peers can have an influence on the child's level of achievement. Coming from a low-income household a child could be teased or expected to fall short academically. This can cause a student to feel discouraged and hold back when it comes to getting involved more with their education because they are scared to be teased if they fail. This helps to explain why the culture of poverty tends to endure from generation to generation as most of the relationships the poor have are within that class.<ref>Payne, Ruby K. ''Framework for understanding poverty''. Highlands, Tex: Aha! Process, 2005.{{pn|date=September 2020}}</ref> The "culture of poverty" theory has been debated and critiqued by many people, including Eleanor Burke Leacock (and others) in her book ''The Culture of Poverty: A Critique''.<ref>Leacock, Eleanor B. (Ed.) ''The Culture of Poverty: A Critique''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971.{{pn|date=September 2020}}</ref> Leacock claims that people who use the term, "culture of poverty" only "contribute to the distorted characterizations of the poor." In addition, Michael Hannan in an essay<ref>Dugan, Dennis J., Leahy, William H. ''Perspectives on Poverty''. New York: Praeger, 1973.</ref> argues that the "culture of poverty" is "essentially untestable." This is due to many things including the highly subjective nature of poverty and issues concerning the universal act of classifying only ''some'' impoverished people as trapped in the culture. === Life shocks === 2004 research in New Zealand<ref name="NZ_Herald_10390891">{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10390891 |title='Life shocks' tip people into hardship |author=Ruth Berry |date=12 July 2006 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |access-date=26 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://media.nzherald.co.nz/webcontent/document/pdf/living-standards-2004.pdf | work=The New Zealand Herald | title=New Zealand Living Standards 2004 | access-date=2009-06-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724182128/http://media.nzherald.co.nz/webcontent/document/pdf/living-standards-2004.pdf | archive-date=2011-07-24 | url-status=dead }}</ref> produced a report that showed that "life shocks" can be endured only to a limited extent, after which people are much more likely to be tipped into hardship. The researchers found very little differences in living standards for people who have endured up to 7 negative events in their lifetime. People who had 8 or more life shocks were dramatically more likely to live in poverty than those who had 0 to 7 life shocks. A few of the life shocks studied were: * Marriage (or similar) break-ups ([[divorce]]) * Forced sale of house * Unexpected and substantial drop in income * [[Eviction]] * [[Bankruptcy]] * Substantial financial loss * Redundancy (being laid off from a job) * Becoming a [[single parent]] * 3 months or more unemployed * Major damage to home * House burgled * Victim of violence * [[Incarceration]] * A non-custodial sentence ([[community service]], or fines, but not imprisonment) * Illness lasting three weeks or more * Major injury or health problem * [[Unplanned pregnancy]] and birth of a child The study focused on just a few possible life shocks, but many others are likely as traumatic or more so. Chronic [[Posttraumatic stress disorder|PTSD]], [[complex post-traumatic stress disorder|complex PTSD]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]] sufferers could have innumerable causes for their mental illness, including those studied above. The study is subject to some criticism.<ref name="NZ_Herald_10391334">{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/social-welfare/news/article.cfm?c_id=322&objectid=10391334 |title=Editorial: Shock the ministry missed |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |access-date=26 September 2011 |date=2006-07-15}}</ref> ===Tracking in education=== History in the United States has shown that Americans saw education as the way to end the perpetual cycle of poverty. In the present, children from low to middle income households are at a disadvantage. They are twice as likely to be held back and more likely not to graduate from high school. Recent studies have shown that the cause for the disparity among academic achievement results from the school's structure where some students succeed from an added advantage and others fail as a result of lacking that advantage. Educational institutions with a learning disparity are causing education to be a sustaining factor for the cycle of poverty. One prominent example of this type of school structures is [[Tracking (education)|tracking]], which is predominantly used to help organize a classroom so the [[Statistical dispersion|variability]] of academic ability in classes is decreased. Students are tracked based on their ability level, generally based on a standardized test after which they are given different course requirements. Some people{{Who|date=January 2012}} believe that tracking "enhances academic achievement and improves the self-concept of students by permitting them to progress at their own pace."<ref name="Ansalone">{{cite journal |last1=Ansalone |first1=George |title=Poverty, tracking, and the social construction of failure: International perspectives on tracking |journal=Journal of Children and Poverty |date=March 2003 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=3–20 |doi=10.1080/1079612022000052698 |s2cid=143300993 }}</ref> The negative side is that studies have shown that tracking decreases students' opportunity to learn. Tracking also has a disproportionate number of [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latino]]s and [[African American]]s that have low [[socioeconomic status]] in the lower learning tracks. Tracking separates [[social class]]es putting the poor and [[minority group|minority]] children in lower tracks where they receive second-rate education, and the students who are better off are placed in upper tracks where they have many opportunities for success. Studies have found that in addition to the higher tracks having more extensive curriculum, there is also a disparity among the teachers and instructional resources provided. There appears to be a race/class bias which results in intelligent children not receiving the skills or opportunities needed for success or social/economic mobility,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Oakes, Jeannie.|title=Multiplying inequalities : the effects of race, social class, and tracking on opportunities to learn mathematics and science|date=1990|publisher=Rand|isbn=0-8330-1080-8|oclc=471086971}}</ref> thus continuing the cycle of poverty. There is an overall perception that American education is failing and research has done nothing to counter this statement, but instead has revealed the reality and severity of the issue of the existence of tracking and other structures that cause the cycle of poverty to continue.<ref name="Ansalone"/> ==Theories and strategies for breaking the cycle== [[File:Shiva Kumar - 2 - Importance of MDGs in redifining the Poverty-- TVP.webm|thumb| [[A. K. Shiva Kumar|Shiva Kumar]] – The importance of MDGs in redefining what are the poverty drivers]] === General approaches === While many governmental officials are still trying to solve poverty, many states and localities are making an effort to break the cycle. Mayor [[Michael Bloomberg|Bloomberg]] of New York City has been advocating a plan where parents are paid up to $5,000 a year for meeting certain goals that will better their lives. This policy was modeled after a Mexican initiative that aims to help poor families make better decisions that will help them in the long-term and break cycle of poverty and dependence that have been known to last for generations. In addition, many states also have been making an attempt to help break the cycle. For example, a bill has been proposed in the California Assembly that "would establish an advisory Childhood Poverty Council to develop a plan to reduce child poverty in the state by half by 2017 and eliminate it by 2027".<ref name="Billitteri">Billitteri, Thomas. "States and Localities. ''CQ Researcher'' 17.31 (2007): 738–39.</ref> Even when the plan has poverty reduction as the goal, a rise in child poverty might be the reality for many states as it was in Connecticut. States are attempting to not only decrease the number of people in the cycle of poverty, but to also adjust the stringent work requirements that resulted from Congress's [[Social welfare provision|welfare]] reform. The tougher work restrictions have upset many poverty advocates who believe the new regulations prevent individuals who are vulnerable or who lack skills from preparing for work. California Democratic Representative McDermott believes as a result of this and other effects of the new limitations, it has been harder for individuals to escape a life of [[poverty]].<ref name="Billitteri"/> {{quote box|width=30%|align=right|quote=Relatively modest increases in benefit levels for programs that assist nonworking individuals and low-income workers might well be sufficient to bring the United States into line with...other affluent nations in its degree of [[poverty reduction]].|source=Lane Kenworthy<ref name="Kenworthy">{{cite journal |last1=Kenworthy |first1=Lane |title=Do Social-Welfare Policies Reduce Poverty? A Cross-National Assessment |journal=Social Forces |date=March 1999 |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=1119–1139 |doi=10.1093/sf/77.3.1119 |url=http://www.lisdatacenter.org/wps/liswps/188.pdf }}</ref>}} In his book ''Children in Jeopardy: Can We Break the Cycle'', Irving B. Harris discusses ways in which children can be helped to begin breaking the cycle of poverty. He stresses the importance of starting early and teaching children the importance of education from a very young age as well as making sure these children get the same educational opportunities as students who are richer. Family values such as nurturing children and encouraging them to do well in school need to be promoted as well as a non-authoritarian approach to parenting. Harris also discusses the importance of discouraging teenage pregnancy and finding ways in which to decrease this phenomenon so that when children are born they are planned and wanted and thus have a better chance at breaking the cycle of poverty.<ref>Harris, Irving B. ''Children in jeopardy can we break the cycle of poverty?'' New Haven: Yale Child Study Center, Distributed by Yale UP, 1996.{{pn|date=September 2020}}</ref> It has been suggested by researchers like Lane Kenworthy that increasing welfare benefits and extending them to non-working families can help reduce poverty as nations that have done so have had better results.<ref name="Kenworthy" /> The [[Harlem Children's Zone]] is working to end generational poverty within a 100-block section of [[Harlem]] using an approach that provides educational support and services for children and their families from birth through college.<ref name="TheHczProject">{{cite web | url=http://hcz.org/programs/the-hcz-project | title=The Harlem Children's Zone Project: 100 Blocks, One Bright Future | access-date=2008-10-12 | work=The Harlem Children's Zone website | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626031730/http://hcz.org/programs/the-hcz-project | archive-date=June 26, 2009 }}</ref> This approach has been recognized as a model by the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama administration]]'s anti-poverty program.<ref name="Obama20Promise">{{cite web | url=http://www.barackobama.com/issues/poverty/index_campaign.php#concentrated-poverty | title=Barack Obama and Joe Biden's Plan to Combat Poverty | date=Fall 2008 | work=Obama-Biden website | access-date=2009-06-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090707092510/http://www.barackobama.com/issues/poverty/index_campaign.php#concentrated-poverty | archive-date=2009-07-07 | url-status=dead }}</ref> === Two-generation poverty alleviation approach === A two-generation poverty alleviation approach focuses on the education, health and social services, and opportunities that parents and children desperately need to lift their families from the depths of the bondage of poverty to a stable and healthy state mentally, physically, and financially. A two-generation approach is a holistic plan for poverty alleviation and "is needed to help low-income parents and children improve their situation".<ref name=Wooton2017/> Using a two-generation approach, parents are taught additional career skills, provided leadership training, and given access to job opportunities with higher wages. Children are given access to better educational programs, free preschool, free childcare, and the supplies they'll need to be successful in school. The family unit receives counseling for the current stressors of poverty as well as childhood trauma. All members of the household are given access to full healthcare benefits, food services at home and in school, and financial relief for their bills, clothing, and transportation in the short-term to relieve the basic needs stressors that prevent the family from taking the time to learn and grow. The preschool program Head Start believes that the only system that works for a preschool is one where the child as a whole is considered, which includes their health and their parents' ability to succeed.<ref name=Wooton2017/> The two-generation poverty alleviation approach sees each member relieved of the basic needs stressors that plague their minds, ensures that they are physically and mentally healthy, provides them the opportunities to learn the skills needed for higher wage jobs, and gives them access to higher wage jobs without discrimination. ==Effects on children== {{Main|Child poverty}} Children are most vulnerable to the cycle of poverty. Because a child is dependent on their guardian(s), if a child's guardian is in poverty, then they will be also. It is almost impossible for a child to pull themself out of the cycle due to age, lack of experience, lack of a job, etc. Because children are at such a young and impressionable age, the scars they gain from experiencing poverty early in life inevitably carry on into their adult life. "Childhood lays the foundations for adult abilities, interests, and motivation."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ashworth |first1=Karl |last2=Hill |first2=Martha |last3=Walker |first3=Robert |title=Patterns of Childhood Poverty: New Challenges for Policy |journal=Journal of Policy Analysis and Management |date=1994 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=658 |doi=10.2307/3325492 |jstor=3325492 }}</ref> Therefore, if they learn certain poverty-related behaviors in childhood, the behaviors are more likely to perpetuate. Studies have shown that household structure sometimes has a connection to [[childhood poverty]]. Most studies on the subject also show that the children who are in poverty tend to come from single-parent households (most often matriarchal). In 1997, nearly 8.5 million (57%) poor children in the US came from single-parent households.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lichter |first1=Daniel T. |title=Poverty and Inequality Among Children |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |date=August 1997 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=121–145 |jstor=2952546 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.121 }}</ref> With the rate of divorce increasing and the number of children born out of wedlock increasing, the number of children who are born into or fall into single-parent households is also increasing. However, this does not mean that the child/children will be impoverished because of it. According to Ashworth, Hill, & Walker (2004), both urban and rural poor children are more likely to be isolated from the nonpoor in schools, neighborhoods, and their communities. Human nature is to have relationships with others but when a child is isolated due to their socioeconomic status, it is hard to overcome that when the status does not improve. Therefore, poor children also have more tense relationships which sometimes results in abnormal, non-constructive, or other unexplained behaviors. There have been programs developed to specifically address the needs of poor children. [[Francis Marion University]]'s Center of Excellence to Prepare Teachers of Children of Poverty has a number of initiatives devoted to equipping teachers to be more effective in raising the achievement of children of poverty. It is located in South Carolina and provides direct teacher training as well as facilitates research in the area of poverty and scholastic achievement. [[Head Start (program)|Head Start]] is a program for low income families who provides early childhood education as well as parent involvement{{clarify|date=March 2022|reason=Head Start *provides* parental involvement? That is chronologically impossible.}}. Results show that attending these programs increases children's academic outcomes. The problem is that in high poverty areas this is supposed to be a helpful resource, but they start to hold lower quality{{clarify|date=March 2022}} due to lack of funds to keep places{{which|date=March 2022}} updated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morrissey |first1=Taryn W. |last2=Vinopal |first2=Katie |title=Center-based early care and education and children's school readiness: Do impacts vary by neighborhood poverty? |journal=Developmental Psychology |date=April 2018 |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=757–771 |doi=10.1037/dev0000470 |pmid=29154645 |s2cid=4577964 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/preprint/Center-based_early_care_and_education_and_children_s_school_readiness_Do_impacts_vary_by_neighborhood_poverty_/23892117 }}</ref> Often the communities in which impoverished children grow up in are crime ridden areas; examples of these areas in America are [[Harlem]] and [[the Bronx]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sandoval |first1=Edgar |last2=Kappstatter |first2=Bob |last3=Parascandola |first3=Rocco |date=18 January 2011 |title=Violence rises in New York City's housing developments, statistics show |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/violence-rises-new-york-city-housing-developments-statistics-show-article-1.152331 |work=NY Daily News }}</ref> Crime and maltreatment at a young age may reduce a child's ability to learn by up to 5%.<ref>[http://www.medpagetoday.com/Pediatrics/DomesticViolence/23748 Walsh, Nancy. "Child Abuse Affects Teen Learning." MedPage Today. MedPage Today, 06 Dec. 2010. Web. 24 Nov. 2012.]</ref> Adopting a criminal lifestyle only worsens the effects of the cycle as they are often incarcerated or killed in many types of [[gang violence]].<ref>Sandoval, Edgar, Bob Kappstatter, and Rocco Parascandola.{{full|date=September 2020}}</ref> ==Developing world== In the [[developing world]], many factors can contribute to a poverty trap, including: limited access to [[Credit (finance)|credit]] and [[capital markets]], extreme [[environmental degradation]] (which depletes agricultural production potential), corrupt governance, [[capital flight]], poor education systems, [[disease ecology]], lack of [[public health care]], war and poor [[infrastructure]].<ref>Bonds, M.H., D.C. Keenan, P. Rohani, and J. D. Sachs. 2010. "Poverty trap formed by the ecology of infectious diseases," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 277:1185–92. {{doi|10.1098/rspb.2009.1778}}</ref> [[Jeffrey Sachs]], in his book ''[[The End of Poverty]]'', discusses the poverty trap and prescribes a set of policy initiatives intended to end the trap. He recommends that [[aid agencies]] behave as [[venture capitalists]] funding [[start-up companies]]. Venture capitalists, once they choose to invest in a venture, do not give only half or a third of the amount they feel the venture needs in order to become profitable; if they did, their money would be wasted. If all goes as planned, the venture will eventually become profitable and the venture capitalist will experience an adequate rate of return on investment. Likewise, Sachs proposes, [[developed countries]] cannot give only a fraction of what is needed in [[aid]] and expect to reverse the poverty trap in Africa. Just like any other start-up, developing nations absolutely must receive the amount of aid necessary (and promised at the [[G-8 Summit]] in 2005<ref>Collier, Paul et al. "Flight Capital as a Portfolio Choice. " Development Research Group, World Bank.</ref>) for them to begin to reverse the poverty trap. The problem is that unlike start-ups, which simply go bankrupt if they fail to receive funding, in Africa people continue to die at a high rate due in large part to lack of sufficient aid. Sachs points out that the extreme poor lack six major kinds of [[Capital (economics)|capital]]: [[human capital]], business capital, infrastructure, [[natural capital]], public institutional capital, and knowledge capital.<ref>Sachs, Jeffrey D. The End of Poverty. Penguin Books, 2006. p. 244</ref> He then details the poverty trap: <blockquote>The poor start with a very low level of capital per person, and then find themselves trapped in poverty because the [[ratio]] of capital per person actually falls from generation to generation. The amount of capital per person declines when the population is growing faster than capital is being accumulated ... The question for growth in per capita income is whether the net [[capital accumulation]] is large enough to keep up with [[population growth]].</blockquote> Sachs argues that sufficient [[foreign aid]] can make up for the lack of capital in poor countries, maintaining that, "If the foreign assistance is substantial enough, and lasts long enough, the capital stock rises sufficiently to lift households above subsistence." Sachs believes the [[public sector]] should focus mainly on investments in human capital (health, education, nutrition), infrastructure (roads, power, water and sanitation, environmental conservation), natural capital (conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems), public institutional capital (a well-run public administration, judicial system, police force), and parts of knowledge capital (scientific research for health, energy, agriculture, climate, ecology).<ref>Sachs, Jeffrey D. The End of Poverty. Penguin Books, 2006. p. 252</ref> Sachs leaves business capital investments to the private sector, which he claims would more efficiently use funding to develop the profitable enterprises necessary to sustain growth. In this sense, Sachs views public institutions as useful in providing the [[public goods]] necessary to begin the [[Rostovian take-off model]], but maintains that [[private goods]] are more efficiently produced and distributed by [[private enterprise]].<ref>Sachs, Jeffrey D. ''[[The End of Poverty]]''. Penguin Books, 2006. p. (?)</ref> This is a widespread view in [[neoclassical economics]]. Several other forms of poverty traps are discussed in the literature,<ref>Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It, Oxford University Press, 2007; Stephen C. Smith, Ending Global Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan 2005; Partha Dasgupta, An Inquiry into Well-being and Destitution, Oxford UP, 1995.</ref> including nations being landlocked with bad neighbors; a vicious cycle of violent conflict; subsistence traps in which farmers wait for middlemen before they specialize but middlemen wait for a region to specialize first; working capital traps in which petty sellers have inventories too sparse to earn enough money to get a bigger inventory; low skill traps in which workers wait for jobs using special skill but firms wait for workers to get such skills; nutritional traps in which individuals are too malnourished to work, yet too poor to afford [[sustainable food systems|sustainable food]]; and behavioral traps in which individuals cannot differentiate between temptation and non-temptation goods, and therefore cannot invest in the non-temptation goods which could help them begin to escape poverty. ==See also== {{columns-list|colwidth=20em| * [[Boots theory]] * [[Collateral consequences of criminal conviction]] * [[Cost of poverty]] * [[Culture of poverty]] * [[Deprivation index]] * [[Diseases of poverty]] * [[Economic inequality]] * [[Feminization of poverty]] * [[Glass ceiling]] * [[Horatio Alger myth]] * [[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]] * [[Make Poverty History]] * [[Poverty]] * [[Poverty reduction]] * [[Poverty threshold]] * [[Rural ghetto]] * [[Social mobility]] * [[Theories of poverty]] * [[Virtuous circle and vicious circle]] * [[Welfare state]] * [[Welfare trap]] * [[Welfare's effect on poverty]] * [[Working poor]] }} {{Poverty|state=expanded}} ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == {{wikibooks|Development Cooperation Handbook|The factors causing poverty and suffering|}} {{Wikiversity|Eliminating poverty}} * "The Joint conference of African Ministers of Finance and Ministers of Economic Development and Planning Report." May, 1999, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[http://www.uneca.org/eca_resources/Major_ECA_Website/joint/capital.htm]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * Ajayi, S. Ibi, Mahsin, S. Khan. "External Debt and Capital Flight in Sub-Saharan Africa." IMF, 2000.[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/nft/2000/extdebt/index.htm] * Collier, Paul et al. "Flight Capital as a Portfolio Choice." Development Research Group, World Bank. * Emeagwali, Philip. Interview, "How does capital flight affect the average African?"[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MsSMDreH7us] {{Critique of work}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cycle Of Poverty}} [[Category:Research on poverty]] [[Category:Child poverty]] [[Category:Urban decay]] [[Category:Economic problems]] [[Category:Waste of resources]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Development economics]]'

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'{{Short description|Vicious cycle that reinforces poverty}} {{for|the theory of how welfare support can affect employment, known in Britain as the "poverty trap"|Welfare trap}} In [[economics]], a '''cycle of poverty''' or '''poverty trap''' is caused by [[self-reinforcing cycle|self-reinforcing mechanisms]] that cause [[poverty]], once it exists, to persist unless there is outside intervention.<ref>Costas Azariadis and John Stachurski, "Poverty Traps," ''Handbook of Economic Growth'', 2005, 326.</ref> It can persist across generations, and when applied to developing countries, is also known as a '''development trap'''.<ref name="Hutchinson"/> Families trapped in the cycle of poverty have few to no resources. There are many [[feedback loop|self-reinforcing]] [[disadvantaged|disadvantages]] that make it virtually impossible for individuals to break the cycle.<ref>Marger (2008). Examples of these disadvantages working in a circular process would be: economic decline, low personal income, no funds for school, which leads to lack of education. The lack of education results in unemployment and lastly low national productivity. ''Social Inequality: Patterns and Processes.'' McGraw Hill Publishing. 4th edition. {{ISBN|0-07-352815-3}}</ref> This occurs when [[poverty|poor people]] do not have the resources necessary to escape poverty, such as [[financial capital]], [[education]], or connections. Impoverished individuals do not have access to economic and social resources as a result of their poverty. This lack may increase their poverty. This could mean that the poor remain poor throughout their lives.<ref name="Hutchinson">[http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Cycle+of+poverty Hutchinson Encyclopedia], Cycle of poverty</ref> Controversial educational psychologist [[Ruby K. Payne]], author of ''A Framework for Understanding Poverty'', distinguishes between '''situational poverty''', which can generally be traced to a specific incident within the lifetimes of the person or family members in poverty, and '''generational poverty''', which is a cycle that passes from generation to generation, and goes on to argue that generational poverty has its own distinct culture and belief patterns.<ref>Payne, R. (2005). ''A framework for understanding poverty'' (4th edition). Highland, TX: aha! Process, Inc.</ref> Measures of [[social mobility]] examine how frequently poor people become wealthier, and how often children are wealthier or achieve higher income than their parents. ==Causes of the cycle== === Economic factors === According to the United States Census, in 2012 people aged 18–64 living in poverty in the country gave the reason they did not work, by category:<ref>[https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/09/why-the-poor-dont-work-according-to-the-poor/279900/ Why the Poor Don't Work, According to the Poor]</ref> * 31% - Ill or disabled * 26% - Home or family reasons * 21% - School or other * 13% - Cannot find work * 8% - Retired early Some activities can also cost poor people more than wealthier people. For example, if unable to afford the first month's rent and security deposit for a typical apartment lease, people sometimes must live in a hotel or motel at a higher daily rate. If unable to afford an apartment with a refrigerator, kitchen, and stove, people may need to spend more on prepared meals than if they could cook for themselves and store leftovers.<ref name="Nickel">Nickel and Dimed</ref> In the case of banking, people who cannot maintain a [[minimum daily balance]] in a savings account are often charged fees by the bank, whereas people with larger amounts of wealth can earn interest on savings and substantial returns from investments. [[Unbanked]] people must use higher-cost [[alternative financial services]], such as [[check-cashing service]]s for payroll and [[money order]]s for transferring to other people. People who have had previous credit problems, such as overdrafting an account, may not be eligible to open a checking or savings account. Major reasons for not opening a bank account include not trusting banks, being concerned about not making a payment due to a bank error or delay, not understanding how banks work, and not having enough money to qualify for a free account.<ref>[https://think.kera.org/2015/03/19/a-place-called-jubilee/ A Place Called Jubilee]</ref> Though most industrialized countries have free universal health care, in the United States and many developing countries, people with little savings often postpone expensive medical treatment as long as possible. This can cause a relatively small medical condition to become a serious condition that costs more to treat, and possibly causing lost wages due to missed hourly work. (Though poor people may have lower overall personal medical expenses simply because illnesses and medical conditions go untreated, and on average life span is shorter.) Higher-income workers typically have medical insurance which prevents them from experiencing excessive costs and often provides free [[preventive care]] for example. In addition to personal savings they can use, higher-income workers are also more likely to be salaried and get [[sick time]] that prevents them from losing wages while seeking treatment.{{Cn|date=July 2023}} Because no skills or experience are required, some people in poverty make money by volunteering for medical studies or [[Plasmapheresis|donating blood plasma]].<ref>[https://think.kera.org/2015/09/01/one-day-two-dollars/ One Day, Two Dollars]</ref> === Internal and external factors sustaining poverty === Amongst the most popular characterizations of the ongoing experience of poverty are that: # It is systemic or institutionalized or # A person is misguided by emotional challenges driven by historical experiences or # A person is affected by a mental disability, or a combination of all three reasons (Bertrand, Mullainathan, & Shafir, 2004<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bertrand |first1=Marianne |last2=Mullainathan |first2=Sendhil |last3=Shafir |first3=Eldar |title=A Behavioral-Economics View of Poverty |journal=American Economic Review |date=1 April 2004 |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=419–423 |doi=10.1257/0002828041302019 |s2cid=2865749 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:2907437 }}</ref>). ==== Systemic factors ==== Donald Curtis (2006),<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Curtis |first1=Donald |title=Mind sets and methods: poverty strategies and the awkward potential of the enabling state |journal=International Journal of Public Sector Management |date=February 2006 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=150–164 |doi=10.1108/09513550610650419 }}</ref> a researcher at the School of Public Policy in the United Kingdom, identified that governments regard the welfare system as an [[enabling]] task. Curtis (2006)<ref name=":0" /> maintained, however, that the system lacks cohesiveness, and is not designed to be an empowerment tool. For example, outside parties are funded to manage the effort without much oversight creating a disconnected system, for which no one leads (Curtis, 2006).<ref name=":0" /> The result is mismanagement of budget without forwarding progress, and those that remain in the poverty loophole are accused of draining the system (Curtis, 2006).<ref name=":0" /> ==== Bias ==== Jill Suttie (2018),<ref>Suttie, J. (2017, January 31). How Adults Communicate Bias to Children. Retrieved June 20, 2019, from https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_adults_communicate_bias_to_children</ref> wrote that implicit bias can be transferred nonverbally to children with no more than a look or a gesture, and as such is a learned behavior. Critical thinking skills can ward off implicit bias, but without education and practice, habitual thoughts can cloud judgment and poorly affect future decisions. ==== Decision-making ==== A Dartmouth College (2016)<ref>Dartmouth College. (2016, April 26). Bias in how we learn and make decisions. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/04/160426115455.htm</ref> study reported that probabilistic decision-making follows prior-based knowledge of failure in similar situations. Rather than choose success, people respond as if the failure has already taken place. Those who have experienced intergenerational poverty are most susceptible to this kind of learned behavior (Wagmiller & Adelman, 2009).<ref name=":1">Wagmiller, R. L., & Adelman, R. M. (2009, November 30). NCCP | Childhood and Intergenerational Poverty. Retrieved June 21, 2019, from http://www.nccp.org/publications/pub_909.html</ref> ==== Intergenerational ==== Professors of Sociology Wagmiller and Adelman (2009)<ref name=":1" /> asserted that roughly 35–46% of people who have experienced hardship in young and middle adulthood also experienced moderate to severe poverty in childhood. As of 2018, 7.5 million people experienced poverty in California alone (Downs, 2018).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Downs |first1=Ray |title=Census Bureau: California has highest poverty rate in U.S. |url=https://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2018/09/13/Census-Bureau-California-has-highest-poverty-rate-in-US/1611536887413/ |work=UPI |date=13 September 2018 }}</ref> ==== Mental illness ==== In a qualitative study, Rudnick et al., (2014),<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Rudnick |first1=Abraham |last2=Montgomery |first2=Phyllis |last3=Coatsworth-Puspoky |first3=Robin |last4=Cohen |first4=Benita |last5=Forchuk |first5=Cheryl |last6=Lahey |first6=Pam |last7=Perry |first7=Stewart |last8=Schofield |first8=Ruth |title=Perspectives of social justice among people living with mental illness and poverty: a qualitative study |journal=Journal of Poverty and Social Justice |date=1 June 2014 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=147–157 |doi=10.1332/175982714X14007697173759 }}</ref> studied people living in poverty with mental illness and determined that participants felt that wellness care, nutrition, housing, and jobs were severely lacking. Respondents asserted that the most significant problem was access to quality services; bureaucratic systems appear to be devoid of logic and treatment by providers were often unaccommodating and uncooperative (Rudnick et al., 2014).<ref name=":2" /> ==== Lowered productivity ==== The stress of worrying about one's personal finances can cause lower productivity. One study on factory workers in India found payment earlier in the work period increased average worker output by 6.2%.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Poverty Makes Workers Less Productive |website=[[NPR]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230623223634/https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2021/02/02/961910289/how-poverty-makes-workers-less-productive |archive-date=2023-06-23 |url-status=live |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/money/2021/02/02/961910289/how-poverty-makes-workers-less-productive}}</ref> ===Choices and culture=== According to a 2009 and 2011 study made by the [[Brookings Institution]], people who finish high school, get a full-time job, and wait until age 21 to marry and have children end up with a poverty rate of only 2%, whereas people who follow none of the steps end up with a poverty rate of 76%.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140801173932/http://www.brookings.edu/blogs/up-front/posts/2011/12/23-mobility-opportunity-haskins Mobility Is a Problem; Now What?], Brookings Institution, December 23, 2011</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130902191532/http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/events/2009/10/27%20opportunity%20society/1027_opportunity_society_presentation.pdf Creating an Opportunity Society], Brookings Institution, October 27, 2009, page 15</ref> === Early childhood adversity and basic needs stressors contributing to the cycle of generational poverty === *The stress of early childhood adversities, including basic need stressors and, at times, abuse and neglect are major causes of generational poverty. Studies have shown that the trauma of child abuse manifests negatively in adult life in overall health and even in employment status.<ref name="Metzler, M. 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Metzler |first1=Marilyn |last2=Merrick |first2=Melissa T. |last3=Klevens |first3=Joanne |last4=Ports |first4=Katie A. |last5=Ford |first5=Derek C. |title=Adverse childhood experiences and life opportunities: Shifting the narrative |journal=Children and Youth Services Review |date=January 2017 |volume=72 |pages=141–149 |doi=10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.10.021 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Abuse and neglect are potential adversities facing those in poverty, the adversity that is shared among all below the poverty line is the daily stress over basic needs. "The stress of meeting basic needs takes all precedent in the family, and children learn that the only way to survive is to focus on getting basic needs met".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Raupp |first1=Andrew B. |title=Council Post: Using Technology To Combat Intergenerational Poverty |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2017/09/06/using-technology-to-combat-intergenerational-poverty/ |work=Forbes |date=6 September 2017 }}</ref> Every member of a household in poverty lives the struggle of basic needs stressors and is impacted by it. The ability to secure and pay for childcare is another contributing factor to the problems those in poverty have with finding and keeping a job.<ref name=Wooton2017>{{cite news |last1=Wooton |first1=Julie |title=Report: Two-Generation Approach is Needed to Break Poverty Cycle |url=https://magicvalley.com/news/local/report-two-generation-approach-is-needed-to-break-poverty-cycle/article_eae8962b-3f06-5621-9799-d620fec8e6cc.html |work=Twin Falls Times-News |date=24 November 2017 }}</ref> These stressors are not just unpleasant, they are catastrophic to a body's health and development. Exposure to chronic stress can induce changes in the architecture of different regions of the developing brain (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus), which can impact a range of important functions, such as regulating the stress response, attention, memory, planning, and learning new skills, and also contribute to dysregulation of inflammatory response systems that can lead to a chronic "wear and tear" effect on multiple organ systems.<ref name="Metzler, M. 2017"/>{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable ([[WP:NOTRS]]).|date=July 2023}} Chronic stress is detrimental to our health and has even been proven to harm memory and organs, including the brain. Working memory, defined as a human's capacity to store information in the brain for immediate use, is known to be shorter for children raised in poverty versus those raised in even a middle-class environment.<ref>{{cite news |title=I am just a poor boy though my story's seldom told |newspaper=The Economist |date=4 April 2009 |volume=391 |issue=8625 |pages=82–83 |id={{ProQuest|223987596}} |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2009/04/02/i-am-just-a-poor-boy-though-my-storys-seldom-told }}</ref> Children suffering through basic needs stressors from the earliest of years have to work harder than their peers to learn and absorb information. ==Family background== A 2002 research paper titled "The Changing Effect of Family Background on the Incomes of American Adults" analyzed changes in the determinants of [[family income]] between 1961 and 1999, focusing on the effect of parental education, occupational rank, income, marital status, family size, region of residence, [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], and [[ethnic group|ethnicity]]. The paper (1) outlines a simple framework for thinking about how family background affects children's family and income, (2) summarizes previous research on trends in intergenerational inheritance in the United States, (3) describes the data used as a basis for the research which it describes, (4) discusses trends in [[Economic inequality|inequality]] among parents, (5) describes how the effects of parental inequality changed between 1961 and 1999, (6) contrasts effects at the top and bottom of the distribution, and (7) discusses whether intergenerational correlations of zero would be desirable. The paper concludes by posing the question of whether reducing the intergenerational correlation is an efficient strategy for reducing poverty or inequality. Because improving the skills of disadvantaged children seems relatively easy, it is an attractive strategy. However, judging by American experience since the 1960s, improving the skills of disadvantaged children has proved difficult. As a result, the paper suggests, there are probably cheaper and easier ways to reduce poverty and inequality, such as supplementing the wages of the poor or changing [[immigration]] policy so that it drives down the relative wages of skilled rather than unskilled workers. These alternative strategies would not reduce intergenerational correlations, but they would reduce the economic gap between children who started life with all the disadvantages instead of all the advantages.<ref>{{Cite book |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7838.html |title=Family Background and Economic Success |editor1=Samuel Bowles |editor2=Herbert Gintis |chapter=The Changing Effect of Family Background |chapter-url=https://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ksg.harvard.edu%2Finequality%2FSeminar%2FPapers%2FJencks.pdf&date=2008-01-04 |first=Christopher |last=Jencks |author2=David J. Harding |author3=Leonard M. Lopoo |author4=Susan E. Mayer |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9780691136202 }}</ref> Another paper, titled ''Do poor children become poor adults?'', which was originally presented at a 2004 symposium on the future of children from disadvantaged families in France, and was later included in a 2006 collection of papers related to the theme of the dynamics of [[Economic inequality|inequality]] and poverty, discusses generational [[Economic mobility|income mobility]] in North America and Europe. The paper opens by observing that in the United States almost one half of children born to low income parents become low income adults, four in ten in the United Kingdom, and one-third in Canada. The paper goes on to observe that rich children also tend to become rich adults—four in ten in the U.S. and the U.K., and as many as one-third in Canada. The paper argues, however, that money is not the only or even the most important factor influencing intergenerational income mobility. The rewards to higher skilled and/or higher educated individuals in the [[labour economics|labor market]] and the opportunities for children to obtain the required skills and credentials are two important factors.{{clarify|reason=sentence show signs of editing that have altered its original meaning. It doesn't seem to make sense anymore. Too long maybe?|date=August 2014}} Conclusions that income transfers to lower income individuals may be important to children but they should not be counted on to strongly promote generational mobility. The paper recommends that governments focus on investments in children to ensure that they have the skills and opportunities to succeed in the labor market, and observes that though this has historically meant promoting access to higher and higher levels of education, it is becoming increasingly important that attention be paid to [[preschool education|preschool]] and early childhood [[education]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mJlKOHGaSaAC |title=Dynamics of Inequality and Poverty |editor1-first=John |editor1-last=Creedy |editor2-first=Guyonne |editor2-last=Kalb |pages=143–88 |chapter=Do Poor Children Become Poor Adults |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mJlKOHGaSaAC&pg=PA143&ei=KdZ-R9TFFouotAOEvLWcCw&sig=xujAA5avuWMdAZ-4zoXFhv_tMHE#PPA143,M1 <!-- alternate url for chapter content: https://web.archive.org/web/20040620034722/http://www.cerc.gouv.fr/meetings/colloque_avril2004/Corak.pdf --> |last=Corak |first=Miles |publisher=Elsevier |year=2006 |isbn=0-7623-1350-1 }}</ref> ===Lack of jobs due to deindustrialization=== {{main|Spatial mismatch}} Sociologist [[William Julius Wilson]] has said that the [[economic restructuring]] of changes from manufacturing to a service-based economy has led to a high percentage of joblessness in the inner-cities and with it a loss of skills and an inability to find jobs. This "mismatch" of skills to jobs available is said to be the main driver of poverty.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pease |first1=John |last2=Martin |first2=Lee |title=Want Ads and Jobs for the Poor: A Glaring Mismatch |journal=Sociological Forum |date=1997 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=545–564 |doi=10.1023/A:1022122723218 |jstor=684732 |s2cid=150443573 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/684732 |access-date=30 May 2023 |issn=0884-8971}}</ref> ===Effects of modern education=== Research shows that schools with students who perform lower than the norm are also those hiring least-qualified teachers as a result of new teachers generally working in the area that they grew up in. This leads to certain schools not producing many students who enter [[tertiary education]]. [[graduation|Graduates]] who previously attended these schools are not as skilled as they would be if they had gone to a school with higher-qualified instructors. This leads to education perpetuating a cycle of poverty. People who choose to work in the schools close to them do not adequately supply the school with enough teachers. The schools must then outsource their teachers from other areas. [[Susanna Loeb]] from the School of Education at Stanford conducted a study and found that teachers who are brought in from the suburbs are 10 times more likely to transfer out of the school after their initial year. The fact that the teachers from the suburbs leave appears to be an influential factor for schools hiring more teachers from that area. The lack of adequate education for children is part of what allows for the cycle of poverty to continue.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{EBSCOhost|22188997}} |title=Modern education's 'cycle of poverty' |date=September 2006 |journal=USA Today Magazine |volume=135 |issue=2736 |page=6 }}</ref> The problem undergoing this is the lack of updating the knowledge of the staff. Schools have continued to conduct professional development the same way they have for decades.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morrissey |first1=Taryn W. |last2=Vinopal |first2=Katie |title=Center-based early care and education and children's school readiness: Do impacts vary by neighborhood poverty? |journal=Developmental Psychology |date=April 2018 |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=757–771 |doi=10.1037/dev0000470 |pmid=29154645 |s2cid=4577964 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/preprint/Center-based_early_care_and_education_and_children_s_school_readiness_Do_impacts_vary_by_neighborhood_poverty_/23892117 }}</ref> ===Culture of poverty=== Another theory for the perpetual cycle of poverty is that poor people have their own culture with a different set of values and beliefs that keep them trapped within that cycle from generation to generation. This theory has been explored by Ruby K. Payne in her book ''A Framework for Understanding Poverty''. In this book she explains how a [[Social class in the United States|social class system in the United States]] exists, where there is a wealthy upper class, a middle class, and the working poor class. These classes each have their own set of rules and values, which differ from each other. To understand the culture of poverty, Payne describes how these rules affect the poor and tend to keep them trapped in this continual cycle. Time is treated differently by the poor; they generally do not plan ahead but simply live in the moment, which keeps them from saving money that could help their children escape poverty. Payne emphasizes how important it is when working with the poor to understand their unique cultural differences so that one does not get frustrated but instead tries to work with them on their ideologies and help them to understand how they can help themselves and their children escape the cycle. One aspect of generational poverty is a [[learned helplessness]] that is passed from parents to children; a mentality that there is no way for one to get out of poverty and so in order to make the best of the situation one must enjoy what one can when one can. This leads to such habits as spending money immediately, often on unnecessary goods such as alcohol and cigarettes, thus teaching their children to do the same and trapping them in poverty. Another important point Payne makes is that leaving poverty is not as simple as acquiring money and moving into a higher class but also includes giving up certain relationships in exchange for achievement. A student's peers can have an influence on the child's level of achievement. Coming from a low-income household a child could be teased or expected to fall short academically. This can cause a student to feel discouraged and hold back when it comes to getting involved more with their education because they are scared to be teased if they fail. This helps to explain why the culture of poverty tends to endure from generation to generation as most of the relationships the poor have are within that class.<ref>Payne, Ruby K. ''Framework for understanding poverty''. Highlands, Tex: Aha! Process, 2005.{{pn|date=September 2020}}</ref> The "culture of poverty" theory has been debated and critiqued by many people, including Eleanor Burke Leacock (and others) in her book ''The Culture of Poverty: A Critique''.<ref>Leacock, Eleanor B. (Ed.) ''The Culture of Poverty: A Critique''. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1971.{{pn|date=September 2020}}</ref> Leacock claims that people who use the term, "culture of poverty" only "contribute to the distorted characterizations of the poor." In addition, Michael Hannan in an essay<ref>Dugan, Dennis J., Leahy, William H. ''Perspectives on Poverty''. New York: Praeger, 1973.</ref> argues that the "culture of poverty" is "essentially untestable." This is due to many things including the highly subjective nature of poverty and issues concerning the universal act of classifying only ''some'' impoverished people as trapped in the culture. === Life shocks === 2004 research in New Zealand<ref name="NZ_Herald_10390891">{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=10390891 |title='Life shocks' tip people into hardship |author=Ruth Berry |date=12 July 2006 |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |access-date=26 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://media.nzherald.co.nz/webcontent/document/pdf/living-standards-2004.pdf | work=The New Zealand Herald | title=New Zealand Living Standards 2004 | access-date=2009-06-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724182128/http://media.nzherald.co.nz/webcontent/document/pdf/living-standards-2004.pdf | archive-date=2011-07-24 | url-status=dead }}</ref> produced a report that showed that "life shocks" can be endured only to a limited extent, after which people are much more likely to be tipped into hardship. The researchers found very little differences in living standards for people who have endured up to 7 negative events in their lifetime. People who had 8 or more life shocks were dramatically more likely to live in poverty than those who had 0 to 7 life shocks. A few of the life shocks studied were: * Marriage (or similar) break-ups ([[divorce]]) * Forced sale of house * Unexpected and substantial drop in income * [[Eviction]] * [[Bankruptcy]] * Substantial financial loss * Redundancy (being laid off from a job) * Becoming a [[single parent]] * 3 months or more unemployed * Major damage to home * House burgled * Victim of violence * [[Incarceration]] * A non-custodial sentence ([[community service]], or fines, but not imprisonment) * Illness lasting three weeks or more * Major injury or health problem * [[Unplanned pregnancy]] and birth of a child The study focused on just a few possible life shocks, but many others are likely as traumatic or more so. Chronic [[Posttraumatic stress disorder|PTSD]], [[complex post-traumatic stress disorder|complex PTSD]], and [[Depression (mood)|depression]] sufferers could have innumerable causes for their mental illness, including those studied above. The study is subject to some criticism.<ref name="NZ_Herald_10391334">{{cite news |url=http://www.nzherald.co.nz/social-welfare/news/article.cfm?c_id=322&objectid=10391334 |title=Editorial: Shock the ministry missed |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |access-date=26 September 2011 |date=2006-07-15}}</ref> ===Tracking in education=== History in the United States has shown that Americans saw education as the way to end the perpetual cycle of poverty. In the present, children from low to middle income households are at a disadvantage. They are twice as likely to be held back and more likely not to graduate from high school. Recent studies have shown that the cause for the disparity among academic achievement results from the school's structure where some students succeed from an added advantage and others fail as a result of lacking that advantage. Educational institutions with a learning disparity are causing education to be a sustaining factor for the cycle of poverty. One prominent example of this type of school structures is [[Tracking (education)|tracking]], which is predominantly used to help organize a classroom so the [[Statistical dispersion|variability]] of academic ability in classes is decreased. Students are tracked based on their ability level, generally based on a standardized test after which they are given different course requirements. Some people{{Who|date=January 2012}} believe that tracking "enhances academic achievement and improves the self-concept of students by permitting them to progress at their own pace."<ref name="Ansalone">{{cite journal |last1=Ansalone |first1=George |title=Poverty, tracking, and the social construction of failure: International perspectives on tracking |journal=Journal of Children and Poverty |date=March 2003 |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=3–20 |doi=10.1080/1079612022000052698 |s2cid=143300993 }}</ref> The negative side is that studies have shown that tracking decreases students' opportunity to learn. Tracking also has a disproportionate number of [[Hispanic and Latino Americans|Latino]]s and [[African American]]s that have low [[socioeconomic status]] in the lower learning tracks. Tracking separates [[social class]]es putting the poor and [[minority group|minority]] children in lower tracks where they receive second-rate education, and the students who are better off are placed in upper tracks where they have many opportunities for success. Studies have found that in addition to the higher tracks having more extensive curriculum, there is also a disparity among the teachers and instructional resources provided. There appears to be a race/class bias which results in intelligent children not receiving the skills or opportunities needed for success or social/economic mobility,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Oakes, Jeannie.|title=Multiplying inequalities : the effects of race, social class, and tracking on opportunities to learn mathematics and science|date=1990|publisher=Rand|isbn=0-8330-1080-8|oclc=471086971}}</ref> thus continuing the cycle of poverty. There is an overall perception that American education is failing and research has done nothing to counter this statement, but instead has revealed the reality and severity of the issue of the existence of tracking and other structures that cause the cycle of poverty to continue.<ref name="Ansalone"/> ==Theories and strategies for breaking the cycle== [[File:Shiva Kumar - 2 - Importance of MDGs in redifining the Poverty-- TVP.webm|thumb| [[A. K. Shiva Kumar|Shiva Kumar]] – The importance of MDGs in redefining what are the poverty drivers]] === General approaches === While many governmental officials are still trying to solve poverty, many states and localities are making an effort to break the cycle. Mayor [[Michael Bloomberg|Bloomberg]] of New York City has been advocating a plan where parents are paid up to $5,000 a year for meeting certain goals that will better their lives. This policy was modeled after a Mexican initiative that aims to help poor families make better decisions that will help them in the long-term and break cycle of poverty and dependence that have been known to last for generations. In addition, many states also have been making an attempt to help break the cycle. For example, a bill has been proposed in the California Assembly that "would establish an advisory Childhood Poverty Council to develop a plan to reduce child poverty in the state by half by 2017 and eliminate it by 2027".<ref name="Billitteri">Billitteri, Thomas. "States and Localities. ''CQ Researcher'' 17.31 (2007): 738–39.</ref> Even when the plan has poverty reduction as the goal, a rise in child poverty might be the reality for many states as it was in Connecticut. States are attempting to not only decrease the number of people in the cycle of poverty, but to also adjust the stringent work requirements that resulted from Congress's [[Social welfare provision|welfare]] reform. The tougher work restrictions have upset many poverty advocates who believe the new regulations prevent individuals who are vulnerable or who lack skills from preparing for work. California Democratic Representative McDermott believes as a result of this and other effects of the new limitations, it has been harder for individuals to escape a life of [[poverty]].<ref name="Billitteri"/> {{quote box|width=30%|align=right|quote=Relatively modest increases in benefit levels for programs that assist nonworking individuals and low-income workers might well be sufficient to bring the United States into line with...other affluent nations in its degree of [[poverty reduction]].|source=Lane Kenworthy<ref name="Kenworthy">{{cite journal |last1=Kenworthy |first1=Lane |title=Do Social-Welfare Policies Reduce Poverty? A Cross-National Assessment |journal=Social Forces |date=March 1999 |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=1119–1139 |doi=10.1093/sf/77.3.1119 |url=http://www.lisdatacenter.org/wps/liswps/188.pdf }}</ref>}} In his book ''Children in Jeopardy: Can We Break the Cycle'', Irving B. Harris discusses ways in which children can be helped to begin breaking the cycle of poverty. He stresses the importance of starting early and teaching children the importance of education from a very young age as well as making sure these children get the same educational opportunities as students who are richer. Family values such as nurturing children and encouraging them to do well in school need to be promoted as well as a non-authoritarian approach to parenting. Harris also discusses the importance of discouraging teenage pregnancy and finding ways in which to decrease this phenomenon so that when children are born they are planned and wanted and thus have a better chance at breaking the cycle of poverty.<ref>Harris, Irving B. ''Children in jeopardy can we break the cycle of poverty?'' New Haven: Yale Child Study Center, Distributed by Yale UP, 1996.{{pn|date=September 2020}}</ref> It has been suggested by researchers like Lane Kenworthy that increasing welfare benefits and extending them to non-working families can help reduce poverty as nations that have done so have had better results.<ref name="Kenworthy" /> The [[Harlem Children's Zone]] is working to end generational poverty within a 100-block section of [[Harlem]] using an approach that provides educational support and services for children and their families from birth through college.<ref name="TheHczProject">{{cite web | url=http://hcz.org/programs/the-hcz-project | title=The Harlem Children's Zone Project: 100 Blocks, One Bright Future | access-date=2008-10-12 | work=The Harlem Children's Zone website | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626031730/http://hcz.org/programs/the-hcz-project | archive-date=June 26, 2009 }}</ref> This approach has been recognized as a model by the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama administration]]'s anti-poverty program.<ref name="Obama20Promise">{{cite web | url=http://www.barackobama.com/issues/poverty/index_campaign.php#concentrated-poverty | title=Barack Obama and Joe Biden's Plan to Combat Poverty | date=Fall 2008 | work=Obama-Biden website | access-date=2009-06-05 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090707092510/http://www.barackobama.com/issues/poverty/index_campaign.php#concentrated-poverty | archive-date=2009-07-07 | url-status=dead }}</ref> === Two-generation poverty alleviation approach === A two-generation poverty alleviation approach focuses on the education, health and social services, and opportunities that parents and children desperately need to lift their families from the depths of the bondage of poverty to a stable and healthy state mentally, physically, and financially. A two-generation approach is a holistic plan for poverty alleviation and "is needed to help low-income parents and children improve their situation".<ref name=Wooton2017/> Using a two-generation approach, parents are taught additional career skills, provided leadership training, and given access to job opportunities with higher wages. Children are given access to better educational programs, free preschool, free childcare, and the supplies they'll need to be successful in school. The family unit receives counseling for the current stressors of poverty as well as childhood trauma. All members of the household are given access to full healthcare benefits, food services at home and in school, and financial relief for their bills, clothing, and transportation in the short-term to relieve the basic needs stressors that prevent the family from taking the time to learn and grow. The preschool program Head Start believes that the only system that works for a preschool is one where the child as a whole is considered, which includes their health and their parents' ability to succeed.<ref name=Wooton2017/> The two-generation poverty alleviation approach sees each member relieved of the basic needs stressors that plague their minds, ensures that they are physically and mentally healthy, provides them the opportunities to learn the skills needed for higher wage jobs, and gives them access to higher wage jobs without discrimination. === Austerity === [[Mark Blyth]], whose 2014 book on austerity claims that austerity not only fails to stimulate growth, but effectively passes that debt down to the working classes.<ref>Blyth, M. ''Austerity: The History of a Dangerous Idea'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2014), p.10</ref> As such, many academics such as Andrew Gamble view Austerity in Britain less as an economic necessity, and more as a tool of statecraft, driven by ideology and not economic requirements.<ref>Gamble, A. Austerity as Statecraft, Parliamentary Affairs, vol.68, Issue 1, (Jan 2015), (pp.42–57), p.42</ref> A study published in ''[[The BMJ]]'' in November 2017 found the Conservative government austerity programme had been linked to approximately 120,000 deaths since 2010; however, this was disputed, for example on the grounds that it was an observational study which did not show cause and effect.<ref name="tory-austerity-deaths">{{cite news |author=Alex Matthews-King |date=15 November 2017 |title=Landmark study links Tory Austerity to 120,000 deaths |newspaper=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/tory-austerity-deaths-study-report-people-die-social-care-government-policy-a8057306.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Emma |date=15 November 2017 |title=Health and social care spending cuts linked to 120,000 excess deaths in England |url=https://blogs.bmj.com/bmjopen/2017/11/15/health-and-social-care-spending-cuts-linked-to-120000-excess-deaths-in-england/ |access-date=8 February 2019 |website=BMJ Open}}</ref> More studies claim adverse effects of austerity on [[population health]], which include an increase in the mortality rate among pensioners which has been linked to unprecedented reductions in income support,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Loopstra |first1=Rachel |last2=McKee |first2=Martin |last3=Katikireddi |first3=Srinivasa Vittal |last4=Taylor-Robinson |first4=David |last5=Barr |first5=Ben |last6=Stuckler |first6=David |date=March 2016 |title=Austerity and old-age mortality in England: a longitudinal cross-local area analysis, 2007–2013 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=109–116 |doi=10.1177/0141076816632215 |issn=0141-0768 |pmc=4794969 |pmid=26980412}}</ref> an increase in suicides and the prescription of antidepressants for patients with mental health issues,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barr |first1=Ben |last2=Kinderman |first2=Peter |last3=Whitehead |first3=Margaret |date=2015-12-01 |title=Trends in mental health inequalities in England during a period of recession, austerity and welfare reform 2004 to 2013 |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=147 |pages=324–331 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.009 |issn=0277-9536 |pmid=26623942}}</ref> and an increase in violence, self-harm, and suicide in prisons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ismail |first=Nasrul |year=2019 |title=Rolling back the prison estate: the pervasive impact of macroeconomic austerity on prisoner health in England |url= |journal=Journal of Public Health |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=625–632 |doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdz058 |pmc=7435213 |pmid=31125072 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ismail |first=Nasrul |year=2019 |title=Contextualising the pervasive impact of macroeconomic austerity on prison health in England: a qualitative study among international policymakers |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=1043 |doi=10.1186/s12889-019-7396-7 |pmc=6683431 |pmid=31383010 |doi-access=free}}</ref> === Mass incarceration === Several scholars have linked [[Incarceration in the United States|mass incarceration of the poor in the United States]] with the rise of neoliberalism.{{sfnp|Haymes|Vidal de Haymes|Miller|2015|pp=3, 346}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Aviram |first=Hadar |date=September 7, 2014 |title=Are Private Prisons to Blame for Mass Incarceration and its Evils? Prison Conditions, Neoliberalism, and Public Choice |url=https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ulj/vol42/iss2/2/ |journal=[[Fordham Urban Law Journal]] |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |ssrn=2492782 |access-date=December 27, 2014}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|pp=130–132}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Gottschalk |first=Marie |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html |title=Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics |date=2014 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0691164052 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CzDFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10] |author-link=Marie Gottschalk}}</ref> Sociologist Loïc Wacquant and [[Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey]] have argued that the criminalization of poverty and mass incarceration is a neoliberal policy for dealing with social instability among economically marginalized populations.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}} According to Wacquant, this situation follows the implementation of other neoliberal policies, which have allowed for the retrenchment of the social [[welfare state]] and the rise of punitive [[workfare]], whilst increasing [[gentrification]] of urban areas, [[privatization]] of public functions, the shrinking of collective protections for the working class via economic [[deregulation]] and the rise of underpaid, [[Precarity|precarious wage labor]].{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=53–54}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Shaw |first=Devin Z. |date=September 29, 2010 |title=Loïc Wacquant: "Prisons of Poverty" |url=http://notes-taken.blogspot.com/2010/09/loic-wacquant-prisons-of-poverty.html |website=The Notes Taken}}</ref> By contrast, it is extremely lenient in dealing with those in the upper echelons of society, in particular when it comes to economic crimes of the [[upper class]] and corporations such as [[fraud]], [[embezzlement]], [[insider trading]], credit and [[insurance fraud]], [[money laundering]] and violation of commerce and labor codes.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Wacquant |first=Loïc |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |date=August 1, 2011 |title=The punitive regulation of poverty in the neoliberal age |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%C3%AFc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925115704/https://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%c3%afc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |archive-date=September 25, 2018 |access-date=July 17, 2018 |website=[[openDemocracy]]}}</ref> According to Wacquant, neoliberalism does not shrink government, but instead sets up a "centaur state" with little governmental oversight for those at the top and strict control of those at the bottom.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=Richard |last2=Christianakis |first2=Mary |title=Feeding the School-to-Prison Pipeline: The Convergence of Neoliberalism, Conservativism, and Penal Populism |url=http://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1173&context=jec |journal=[[Journal of Educational Controversy]] |publisher=Woodring College of Education, [[Western Washington University]] |access-date=February 23, 2014}}</ref> ==Effects on children== {{Main|Child poverty}} Children are most vulnerable to the cycle of poverty. Because a child is dependent on their guardian(s), if a child's guardian is in poverty, then they will be also. It is almost impossible for a child to pull themself out of the cycle due to age, lack of experience, lack of a job, etc. Because children are at such a young and impressionable age, the scars they gain from experiencing poverty early in life inevitably carry on into their adult life. "Childhood lays the foundations for adult abilities, interests, and motivation."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ashworth |first1=Karl |last2=Hill |first2=Martha |last3=Walker |first3=Robert |title=Patterns of Childhood Poverty: New Challenges for Policy |journal=Journal of Policy Analysis and Management |date=1994 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=658 |doi=10.2307/3325492 |jstor=3325492 }}</ref> Therefore, if they learn certain poverty-related behaviors in childhood, the behaviors are more likely to perpetuate. Studies have shown that household structure sometimes has a connection to [[childhood poverty]]. Most studies on the subject also show that the children who are in poverty tend to come from single-parent households (most often matriarchal). In 1997, nearly 8.5 million (57%) poor children in the US came from single-parent households.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lichter |first1=Daniel T. |title=Poverty and Inequality Among Children |journal=Annual Review of Sociology |date=August 1997 |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=121–145 |jstor=2952546 |doi=10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.121 }}</ref> With the rate of divorce increasing and the number of children born out of wedlock increasing, the number of children who are born into or fall into single-parent households is also increasing. However, this does not mean that the child/children will be impoverished because of it. According to Ashworth, Hill, & Walker (2004), both urban and rural poor children are more likely to be isolated from the nonpoor in schools, neighborhoods, and their communities. Human nature is to have relationships with others but when a child is isolated due to their socioeconomic status, it is hard to overcome that when the status does not improve. Therefore, poor children also have more tense relationships which sometimes results in abnormal, non-constructive, or other unexplained behaviors. There have been programs developed to specifically address the needs of poor children. [[Francis Marion University]]'s Center of Excellence to Prepare Teachers of Children of Poverty has a number of initiatives devoted to equipping teachers to be more effective in raising the achievement of children of poverty. It is located in South Carolina and provides direct teacher training as well as facilitates research in the area of poverty and scholastic achievement. [[Head Start (program)|Head Start]] is a program for low income families who provides early childhood education as well as parent involvement{{clarify|date=March 2022|reason=Head Start *provides* parental involvement? That is chronologically impossible.}}. Results show that attending these programs increases children's academic outcomes. The problem is that in high poverty areas this is supposed to be a helpful resource, but they start to hold lower quality{{clarify|date=March 2022}} due to lack of funds to keep places{{which|date=March 2022}} updated.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morrissey |first1=Taryn W. |last2=Vinopal |first2=Katie |title=Center-based early care and education and children's school readiness: Do impacts vary by neighborhood poverty? |journal=Developmental Psychology |date=April 2018 |volume=54 |issue=4 |pages=757–771 |doi=10.1037/dev0000470 |pmid=29154645 |s2cid=4577964 |url=https://figshare.com/articles/preprint/Center-based_early_care_and_education_and_children_s_school_readiness_Do_impacts_vary_by_neighborhood_poverty_/23892117 }}</ref> Often the communities in which impoverished children grow up in are crime ridden areas; examples of these areas in America are [[Harlem]] and [[the Bronx]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sandoval |first1=Edgar |last2=Kappstatter |first2=Bob |last3=Parascandola |first3=Rocco |date=18 January 2011 |title=Violence rises in New York City's housing developments, statistics show |url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/violence-rises-new-york-city-housing-developments-statistics-show-article-1.152331 |work=NY Daily News }}</ref> Crime and maltreatment at a young age may reduce a child's ability to learn by up to 5%.<ref>[http://www.medpagetoday.com/Pediatrics/DomesticViolence/23748 Walsh, Nancy. "Child Abuse Affects Teen Learning." MedPage Today. MedPage Today, 06 Dec. 2010. Web. 24 Nov. 2012.]</ref> Adopting a criminal lifestyle only worsens the effects of the cycle as they are often incarcerated or killed in many types of [[gang violence]].<ref>Sandoval, Edgar, Bob Kappstatter, and Rocco Parascandola.{{full|date=September 2020}}</ref> ==Developing world== In the [[developing world]], many factors can contribute to a poverty trap, including: limited access to [[Credit (finance)|credit]] and [[capital markets]], extreme [[environmental degradation]] (which depletes agricultural production potential), corrupt governance, [[capital flight]], poor education systems, [[disease ecology]], lack of [[public health care]], war and poor [[infrastructure]].<ref>Bonds, M.H., D.C. Keenan, P. Rohani, and J. D. Sachs. 2010. "Poverty trap formed by the ecology of infectious diseases," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 277:1185–92. {{doi|10.1098/rspb.2009.1778}}</ref> [[Jeffrey Sachs]], in his book ''[[The End of Poverty]]'', discusses the poverty trap and prescribes a set of policy initiatives intended to end the trap. He recommends that [[aid agencies]] behave as [[venture capitalists]] funding [[start-up companies]]. Venture capitalists, once they choose to invest in a venture, do not give only half or a third of the amount they feel the venture needs in order to become profitable; if they did, their money would be wasted. If all goes as planned, the venture will eventually become profitable and the venture capitalist will experience an adequate rate of return on investment. Likewise, Sachs proposes, [[developed countries]] cannot give only a fraction of what is needed in [[aid]] and expect to reverse the poverty trap in Africa. Just like any other start-up, developing nations absolutely must receive the amount of aid necessary (and promised at the [[G-8 Summit]] in 2005<ref>Collier, Paul et al. "Flight Capital as a Portfolio Choice. " Development Research Group, World Bank.</ref>) for them to begin to reverse the poverty trap. The problem is that unlike start-ups, which simply go bankrupt if they fail to receive funding, in Africa people continue to die at a high rate due in large part to lack of sufficient aid. Sachs points out that the extreme poor lack six major kinds of [[Capital (economics)|capital]]: [[human capital]], business capital, infrastructure, [[natural capital]], public institutional capital, and knowledge capital.<ref>Sachs, Jeffrey D. The End of Poverty. Penguin Books, 2006. p. 244</ref> He then details the poverty trap: <blockquote>The poor start with a very low level of capital per person, and then find themselves trapped in poverty because the [[ratio]] of capital per person actually falls from generation to generation. The amount of capital per person declines when the population is growing faster than capital is being accumulated ... The question for growth in per capita income is whether the net [[capital accumulation]] is large enough to keep up with [[population growth]].</blockquote> Sachs argues that sufficient [[foreign aid]] can make up for the lack of capital in poor countries, maintaining that, "If the foreign assistance is substantial enough, and lasts long enough, the capital stock rises sufficiently to lift households above subsistence." Sachs believes the [[public sector]] should focus mainly on investments in human capital (health, education, nutrition), infrastructure (roads, power, water and sanitation, environmental conservation), natural capital (conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems), public institutional capital (a well-run public administration, judicial system, police force), and parts of knowledge capital (scientific research for health, energy, agriculture, climate, ecology).<ref>Sachs, Jeffrey D. The End of Poverty. Penguin Books, 2006. p. 252</ref> Sachs leaves business capital investments to the private sector, which he claims would more efficiently use funding to develop the profitable enterprises necessary to sustain growth. In this sense, Sachs views public institutions as useful in providing the [[public goods]] necessary to begin the [[Rostovian take-off model]], but maintains that [[private goods]] are more efficiently produced and distributed by [[private enterprise]].<ref>Sachs, Jeffrey D. ''[[The End of Poverty]]''. Penguin Books, 2006. p. (?)</ref> This is a widespread view in [[neoclassical economics]]. Several other forms of poverty traps are discussed in the literature,<ref>Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It, Oxford University Press, 2007; Stephen C. Smith, Ending Global Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan 2005; Partha Dasgupta, An Inquiry into Well-being and Destitution, Oxford UP, 1995.</ref> including nations being landlocked with bad neighbors; a vicious cycle of violent conflict; subsistence traps in which farmers wait for middlemen before they specialize but middlemen wait for a region to specialize first; working capital traps in which petty sellers have inventories too sparse to earn enough money to get a bigger inventory; low skill traps in which workers wait for jobs using special skill but firms wait for workers to get such skills; nutritional traps in which individuals are too malnourished to work, yet too poor to afford [[sustainable food systems|sustainable food]]; and behavioral traps in which individuals cannot differentiate between temptation and non-temptation goods, and therefore cannot invest in the non-temptation goods which could help them begin to escape poverty. ==See also== {{columns-list|colwidth=20em| * [[Boots theory]] * [[Collateral consequences of criminal conviction]] * [[Cost of poverty]] * [[Culture of poverty]] * [[Deprivation index]] * [[Diseases of poverty]] * [[Economic inequality]] * [[Feminization of poverty]] * [[Glass ceiling]] * [[Horatio Alger myth]] * [[List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty]] * [[Make Poverty History]] * [[Poverty]] * [[Poverty reduction]] * [[Poverty threshold]] * [[Rural ghetto]] * [[Social mobility]] * [[Theories of poverty]] * [[Virtuous circle and vicious circle]] * [[Welfare state]] * [[Welfare trap]] * [[Welfare's effect on poverty]] * [[Working poor]] }} {{Poverty|state=expanded}} ==References== {{reflist}} == External links == {{wikibooks|Development Cooperation Handbook|The factors causing poverty and suffering|}} {{Wikiversity|Eliminating poverty}} * "The Joint conference of African Ministers of Finance and Ministers of Economic Development and Planning Report." May, 1999, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.[http://www.uneca.org/eca_resources/Major_ECA_Website/joint/capital.htm]{{dead link|date=March 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * Ajayi, S. Ibi, Mahsin, S. Khan. "External Debt and Capital Flight in Sub-Saharan Africa." IMF, 2000.[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/nft/2000/extdebt/index.htm] * Collier, Paul et al. "Flight Capital as a Portfolio Choice." Development Research Group, World Bank. * Emeagwali, Philip. Interview, "How does capital flight affect the average African?"[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MsSMDreH7us] {{Critique of work}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Cycle Of Poverty}} [[Category:Research on poverty]] [[Category:Child poverty]] [[Category:Urban decay]] [[Category:Economic problems]] [[Category:Waste of resources]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Development economics]]'

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'@@ -172,4 +172,10 @@ === Two-generation poverty alleviation approach === A two-generation poverty alleviation approach focuses on the education, health and social services, and opportunities that parents and children desperately need to lift their families from the depths of the bondage of poverty to a stable and healthy state mentally, physically, and financially. A two-generation approach is a holistic plan for poverty alleviation and "is needed to help low-income parents and children improve their situation".<ref name=Wooton2017/> Using a two-generation approach, parents are taught additional career skills, provided leadership training, and given access to job opportunities with higher wages. Children are given access to better educational programs, free preschool, free childcare, and the supplies they'll need to be successful in school. The family unit receives counseling for the current stressors of poverty as well as childhood trauma. All members of the household are given access to full healthcare benefits, food services at home and in school, and financial relief for their bills, clothing, and transportation in the short-term to relieve the basic needs stressors that prevent the family from taking the time to learn and grow. The preschool program Head Start believes that the only system that works for a preschool is one where the child as a whole is considered, which includes their health and their parents' ability to succeed.<ref name=Wooton2017/> The two-generation poverty alleviation approach sees each member relieved of the basic needs stressors that plague their minds, ensures that they are physically and mentally healthy, provides them the opportunities to learn the skills needed for higher wage jobs, and gives them access to higher wage jobs without discrimination. + +=== Austerity === +[[Mark Blyth]], whose 2014 book on austerity claims that austerity not only fails to stimulate growth, but effectively passes that debt down to the working classes.<ref>Blyth, M. ''Austerity: The History of a Dangerous Idea'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2014), p.10</ref> As such, many academics such as Andrew Gamble view Austerity in Britain less as an economic necessity, and more as a tool of statecraft, driven by ideology and not economic requirements.<ref>Gamble, A. Austerity as Statecraft, Parliamentary Affairs, vol.68, Issue 1, (Jan 2015), (pp.42–57), p.42</ref> A study published in ''[[The BMJ]]'' in November 2017 found the Conservative government austerity programme had been linked to approximately 120,000 deaths since 2010; however, this was disputed, for example on the grounds that it was an observational study which did not show cause and effect.<ref name="tory-austerity-deaths">{{cite news |author=Alex Matthews-King |date=15 November 2017 |title=Landmark study links Tory Austerity to 120,000 deaths |newspaper=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/tory-austerity-deaths-study-report-people-die-social-care-government-policy-a8057306.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Emma |date=15 November 2017 |title=Health and social care spending cuts linked to 120,000 excess deaths in England |url=https://blogs.bmj.com/bmjopen/2017/11/15/health-and-social-care-spending-cuts-linked-to-120000-excess-deaths-in-england/ |access-date=8 February 2019 |website=BMJ Open}}</ref> More studies claim adverse effects of austerity on [[population health]], which include an increase in the mortality rate among pensioners which has been linked to unprecedented reductions in income support,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Loopstra |first1=Rachel |last2=McKee |first2=Martin |last3=Katikireddi |first3=Srinivasa Vittal |last4=Taylor-Robinson |first4=David |last5=Barr |first5=Ben |last6=Stuckler |first6=David |date=March 2016 |title=Austerity and old-age mortality in England: a longitudinal cross-local area analysis, 2007–2013 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=109–116 |doi=10.1177/0141076816632215 |issn=0141-0768 |pmc=4794969 |pmid=26980412}}</ref> an increase in suicides and the prescription of antidepressants for patients with mental health issues,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barr |first1=Ben |last2=Kinderman |first2=Peter |last3=Whitehead |first3=Margaret |date=2015-12-01 |title=Trends in mental health inequalities in England during a period of recession, austerity and welfare reform 2004 to 2013 |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=147 |pages=324–331 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.009 |issn=0277-9536 |pmid=26623942}}</ref> and an increase in violence, self-harm, and suicide in prisons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ismail |first=Nasrul |year=2019 |title=Rolling back the prison estate: the pervasive impact of macroeconomic austerity on prisoner health in England |url= |journal=Journal of Public Health |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=625–632 |doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdz058 |pmc=7435213 |pmid=31125072 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ismail |first=Nasrul |year=2019 |title=Contextualising the pervasive impact of macroeconomic austerity on prison health in England: a qualitative study among international policymakers |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=1043 |doi=10.1186/s12889-019-7396-7 |pmc=6683431 |pmid=31383010 |doi-access=free}}</ref> + +=== Mass incarceration === +Several scholars have linked [[Incarceration in the United States|mass incarceration of the poor in the United States]] with the rise of neoliberalism.{{sfnp|Haymes|Vidal de Haymes|Miller|2015|pp=3, 346}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Aviram |first=Hadar |date=September 7, 2014 |title=Are Private Prisons to Blame for Mass Incarceration and its Evils? Prison Conditions, Neoliberalism, and Public Choice |url=https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ulj/vol42/iss2/2/ |journal=[[Fordham Urban Law Journal]] |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |ssrn=2492782 |access-date=December 27, 2014}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|pp=130–132}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Gottschalk |first=Marie |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html |title=Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics |date=2014 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0691164052 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CzDFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10] |author-link=Marie Gottschalk}}</ref> Sociologist Loïc Wacquant and [[Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey]] have argued that the criminalization of poverty and mass incarceration is a neoliberal policy for dealing with social instability among economically marginalized populations.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}} According to Wacquant, this situation follows the implementation of other neoliberal policies, which have allowed for the retrenchment of the social [[welfare state]] and the rise of punitive [[workfare]], whilst increasing [[gentrification]] of urban areas, [[privatization]] of public functions, the shrinking of collective protections for the working class via economic [[deregulation]] and the rise of underpaid, [[Precarity|precarious wage labor]].{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=53–54}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Shaw |first=Devin Z. |date=September 29, 2010 |title=Loïc Wacquant: "Prisons of Poverty" |url=http://notes-taken.blogspot.com/2010/09/loic-wacquant-prisons-of-poverty.html |website=The Notes Taken}}</ref> By contrast, it is extremely lenient in dealing with those in the upper echelons of society, in particular when it comes to economic crimes of the [[upper class]] and corporations such as [[fraud]], [[embezzlement]], [[insider trading]], credit and [[insurance fraud]], [[money laundering]] and violation of commerce and labor codes.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Wacquant |first=Loïc |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |date=August 1, 2011 |title=The punitive regulation of poverty in the neoliberal age |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%C3%AFc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925115704/https://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%c3%afc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |archive-date=September 25, 2018 |access-date=July 17, 2018 |website=[[openDemocracy]]}}</ref> According to Wacquant, neoliberalism does not shrink government, but instead sets up a "centaur state" with little governmental oversight for those at the top and strict control of those at the bottom.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=Richard |last2=Christianakis |first2=Mary |title=Feeding the School-to-Prison Pipeline: The Convergence of Neoliberalism, Conservativism, and Penal Populism |url=http://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1173&context=jec |journal=[[Journal of Educational Controversy]] |publisher=Woodring College of Education, [[Western Washington University]] |access-date=February 23, 2014}}</ref> ==Effects on children== '

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[ 0 => '', 1 => '=== Austerity ===', 2 => '[[Mark Blyth]], whose 2014 book on austerity claims that austerity not only fails to stimulate growth, but effectively passes that debt down to the working classes.<ref>Blyth, M. ''Austerity: The History of a Dangerous Idea'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2014), p.10</ref> As such, many academics such as Andrew Gamble view Austerity in Britain less as an economic necessity, and more as a tool of statecraft, driven by ideology and not economic requirements.<ref>Gamble, A. Austerity as Statecraft, Parliamentary Affairs, vol.68, Issue 1, (Jan 2015), (pp.42–57), p.42</ref> A study published in ''[[The BMJ]]'' in November 2017 found the Conservative government austerity programme had been linked to approximately 120,000 deaths since 2010; however, this was disputed, for example on the grounds that it was an observational study which did not show cause and effect.<ref name="tory-austerity-deaths">{{cite news |author=Alex Matthews-King |date=15 November 2017 |title=Landmark study links Tory Austerity to 120,000 deaths |newspaper=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/health/tory-austerity-deaths-study-report-people-die-social-care-government-policy-a8057306.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Johnson |first=Emma |date=15 November 2017 |title=Health and social care spending cuts linked to 120,000 excess deaths in England |url=https://blogs.bmj.com/bmjopen/2017/11/15/health-and-social-care-spending-cuts-linked-to-120000-excess-deaths-in-england/ |access-date=8 February 2019 |website=BMJ Open}}</ref> More studies claim adverse effects of austerity on [[population health]], which include an increase in the mortality rate among pensioners which has been linked to unprecedented reductions in income support,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Loopstra |first1=Rachel |last2=McKee |first2=Martin |last3=Katikireddi |first3=Srinivasa Vittal |last4=Taylor-Robinson |first4=David |last5=Barr |first5=Ben |last6=Stuckler |first6=David |date=March 2016 |title=Austerity and old-age mortality in England: a longitudinal cross-local area analysis, 2007–2013 |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=109–116 |doi=10.1177/0141076816632215 |issn=0141-0768 |pmc=4794969 |pmid=26980412}}</ref> an increase in suicides and the prescription of antidepressants for patients with mental health issues,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barr |first1=Ben |last2=Kinderman |first2=Peter |last3=Whitehead |first3=Margaret |date=2015-12-01 |title=Trends in mental health inequalities in England during a period of recession, austerity and welfare reform 2004 to 2013 |journal=Social Science & Medicine |volume=147 |pages=324–331 |doi=10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.009 |issn=0277-9536 |pmid=26623942}}</ref> and an increase in violence, self-harm, and suicide in prisons.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ismail |first=Nasrul |year=2019 |title=Rolling back the prison estate: the pervasive impact of macroeconomic austerity on prisoner health in England |url= |journal=Journal of Public Health |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=625–632 |doi=10.1093/pubmed/fdz058 |pmc=7435213 |pmid=31125072 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ismail |first=Nasrul |year=2019 |title=Contextualising the pervasive impact of macroeconomic austerity on prison health in England: a qualitative study among international policymakers |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=1043 |doi=10.1186/s12889-019-7396-7 |pmc=6683431 |pmid=31383010 |doi-access=free}}</ref>', 3 => '', 4 => '=== Mass incarceration ===', 5 => 'Several scholars have linked [[Incarceration in the United States|mass incarceration of the poor in the United States]] with the rise of neoliberalism.{{sfnp|Haymes|Vidal de Haymes|Miller|2015|pp=3, 346}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Aviram |first=Hadar |date=September 7, 2014 |title=Are Private Prisons to Blame for Mass Incarceration and its Evils? Prison Conditions, Neoliberalism, and Public Choice |url=https://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/ulj/vol42/iss2/2/ |journal=[[Fordham Urban Law Journal]] |publisher=[[Fordham University School of Law]] |ssrn=2492782 |access-date=December 27, 2014}}</ref>{{sfnp|Gerstle|2022|pp=130–132}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Gottschalk |first=Marie |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/10731.html |title=Caught: The Prison State and the Lockdown of American Politics |date=2014 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0691164052 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CzDFCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10] |author-link=Marie Gottschalk}}</ref> Sociologist Loïc Wacquant and [[Marxist]] economic geographer [[David Harvey]] have argued that the criminalization of poverty and mass incarceration is a neoliberal policy for dealing with social instability among economically marginalized populations.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}} According to Wacquant, this situation follows the implementation of other neoliberal policies, which have allowed for the retrenchment of the social [[welfare state]] and the rise of punitive [[workfare]], whilst increasing [[gentrification]] of urban areas, [[privatization]] of public functions, the shrinking of collective protections for the working class via economic [[deregulation]] and the rise of underpaid, [[Precarity|precarious wage labor]].{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=53–54}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Shaw |first=Devin Z. |date=September 29, 2010 |title=Loïc Wacquant: "Prisons of Poverty" |url=http://notes-taken.blogspot.com/2010/09/loic-wacquant-prisons-of-poverty.html |website=The Notes Taken}}</ref> By contrast, it is extremely lenient in dealing with those in the upper echelons of society, in particular when it comes to economic crimes of the [[upper class]] and corporations such as [[fraud]], [[embezzlement]], [[insider trading]], credit and [[insurance fraud]], [[money laundering]] and violation of commerce and labor codes.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Wacquant |first=Loïc |author-link=Loïc Wacquant |date=August 1, 2011 |title=The punitive regulation of poverty in the neoliberal age |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%C3%AFc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925115704/https://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/lo%c3%afc-wacquant/punitive-regulation-of-poverty-in-neoliberal-age |archive-date=September 25, 2018 |access-date=July 17, 2018 |website=[[openDemocracy]]}}</ref> According to Wacquant, neoliberalism does not shrink government, but instead sets up a "centaur state" with little governmental oversight for those at the top and strict control of those at the bottom.{{sfnp|Wacquant|2009|pp=125–126, 312}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=Richard |last2=Christianakis |first2=Mary |title=Feeding the School-to-Prison Pipeline: The Convergence of Neoliberalism, Conservativism, and Penal Populism |url=http://cedar.wwu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1173&context=jec |journal=[[Journal of Educational Controversy]] |publisher=Woodring College of Education, [[Western Washington University]] |access-date=February 23, 2014}}</ref>' ]

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'<div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Vicious cycle that reinforces poverty</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the theory of how welfare support can affect employment, known in Britain as the "poverty trap", see <a href="/wiki/Welfare_trap" title="Welfare trap">Welfare trap</a>.</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, a <b>cycle of poverty</b> or <b>poverty trap</b> is caused by <a href="/wiki/Self-reinforcing_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-reinforcing cycle">self-reinforcing mechanisms</a> that cause <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, once it exists, to persist unless there is outside intervention.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">&#91;1&#93;</a></sup> It can persist across generations, and when applied to developing countries, is also known as a <b>development trap</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hutchinson_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Families trapped in the cycle of poverty have few to no resources. There are many <a href="/wiki/Feedback_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedback loop">self-reinforcing</a> <a href="/wiki/Disadvantaged" title="Disadvantaged">disadvantages</a> that make it virtually impossible for individuals to break the cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">&#91;3&#93;</a></sup> This occurs when <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poor people</a> do not have the resources necessary to escape poverty, such as <a href="/wiki/Financial_capital" title="Financial capital">financial capital</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, or connections. Impoverished individuals do not have access to economic and social resources as a result of their poverty. This lack may increase their poverty. This could mean that the poor remain poor throughout their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-Hutchinson_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hutchinson-2">&#91;2&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Controversial educational psychologist <a href="/wiki/Ruby_K._Payne" title="Ruby K. Payne">Ruby K. Payne</a>, author of <i>A Framework for Understanding Poverty</i>, distinguishes between <b>situational poverty</b>, which can generally be traced to a specific incident within the lifetimes of the person or family members in poverty, and <b>generational poverty</b>, which is a cycle that passes from generation to generation, and goes on to argue that generational poverty has its own distinct culture and belief patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">&#91;4&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Measures of <a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">social mobility</a> examine how frequently poor people become wealthier, and how often children are wealthier or achieve higher income than their parents. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Causes_of_the_cycle"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Causes of the cycle</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Economic_factors"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Economic factors</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Internal_and_external_factors_sustaining_poverty"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Internal and external factors sustaining poverty</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Systemic_factors"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Systemic factors</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Bias"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Bias</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Decision-making"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Decision-making</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Intergenerational"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Intergenerational</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Mental_illness"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Mental illness</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Lowered_productivity"><span class="tocnumber">1.2.6</span> <span class="toctext">Lowered productivity</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Choices_and_culture"><span class="tocnumber">1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Choices and culture</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Early_childhood_adversity_and_basic_needs_stressors_contributing_to_the_cycle_of_generational_poverty"><span class="tocnumber">1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Early childhood adversity and basic needs stressors contributing to the cycle of generational poverty</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Family_background"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Family background</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Lack_of_jobs_due_to_deindustrialization"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Lack of jobs due to deindustrialization</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Effects_of_modern_education"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Effects of modern education</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15"><a href="#Culture_of_poverty"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Culture of poverty</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Life_shocks"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Life shocks</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Tracking_in_education"><span class="tocnumber">2.5</span> <span class="toctext">Tracking in education</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Theories_and_strategies_for_breaking_the_cycle"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Theories and strategies for breaking the cycle</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#General_approaches"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">General approaches</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#Two-generation_poverty_alleviation_approach"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Two-generation poverty alleviation approach</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#Austerity"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Austerity</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-22"><a href="#Mass_incarceration"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Mass incarceration</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#Effects_on_children"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Effects on children</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Developing_world"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Developing world</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Causes_of_the_cycle">Causes of the cycle</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Causes of the cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Economic_factors">Economic factors</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Economic factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>According to the United States Census, in 2012 people aged 18–64 living in poverty in the country gave the reason they did not work, by category:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">&#91;5&#93;</a></sup> </p> <ul><li>31% - Ill or disabled</li> <li>26% - Home or family reasons</li> <li>21% - School or other</li> <li>13% - Cannot find work</li> <li>8% - Retired early</li></ul> <p>Some activities can also cost poor people more than wealthier people. For example, if unable to afford the first month's rent and security deposit for a typical apartment lease, people sometimes must live in a hotel or motel at a higher daily rate. If unable to afford an apartment with a refrigerator, kitchen, and stove, people may need to spend more on prepared meals than if they could cook for themselves and store leftovers.<sup id="cite_ref-Nickel_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nickel-6">&#91;6&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>In the case of banking, people who cannot maintain a <a href="/wiki/Minimum_daily_balance" title="Minimum daily balance">minimum daily balance</a> in a savings account are often charged fees by the bank, whereas people with larger amounts of wealth can earn interest on savings and substantial returns from investments. <a href="/wiki/Unbanked" title="Unbanked">Unbanked</a> people must use higher-cost <a href="/wiki/Alternative_financial_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Alternative financial services">alternative financial services</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Check-cashing_service" class="mw-redirect" title="Check-cashing service">check-cashing services</a> for payroll and <a href="/wiki/Money_order" title="Money order">money orders</a> for transferring to other people. People who have had previous credit problems, such as overdrafting an account, may not be eligible to open a checking or savings account. Major reasons for not opening a bank account include not trusting banks, being concerned about not making a payment due to a bank error or delay, not understanding how banks work, and not having enough money to qualify for a free account.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7">&#91;7&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Though most industrialized countries have free universal health care, in the United States and many developing countries, people with little savings often postpone expensive medical treatment as long as possible. This can cause a relatively small medical condition to become a serious condition that costs more to treat, and possibly causing lost wages due to missed hourly work. (Though poor people may have lower overall personal medical expenses simply because illnesses and medical conditions go untreated, and on average life span is shorter.) Higher-income workers typically have medical insurance which prevents them from experiencing excessive costs and often provides free <a href="/wiki/Preventive_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive care">preventive care</a> for example. In addition to personal savings they can use, higher-income workers are also more likely to be salaried and get <a href="/wiki/Sick_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Sick time">sick time</a> that prevents them from losing wages while seeking treatment.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> </p><p>Because no skills or experience are required, some people in poverty make money by volunteering for medical studies or <a href="/wiki/Plasmapheresis" title="Plasmapheresis">donating blood plasma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">&#91;8&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Internal_and_external_factors_sustaining_poverty">Internal and external factors sustaining poverty</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Internal and external factors sustaining poverty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Amongst the most popular characterizations of the ongoing experience of poverty are that: </p> <ol><li>It is systemic or institutionalized or</li> <li>A person is misguided by emotional challenges driven by historical experiences or</li> <li>A person is affected by a mental disability,</li></ol> <p>or a combination of all three reasons (Bertrand, Mullainathan, &amp; Shafir, 2004<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">&#91;9&#93;</a></sup>). </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Systemic_factors">Systemic factors</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Systemic factors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Donald Curtis (2006),<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> a researcher at the School of Public Policy in the United Kingdom, identified that governments regard the welfare system as an <a href="/wiki/Enabling" title="Enabling">enabling</a> task. Curtis (2006)<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> maintained, however, that the system lacks cohesiveness, and is not designed to be an empowerment tool. </p><p>For example, outside parties are funded to manage the effort without much oversight creating a disconnected system, for which no one leads (Curtis, 2006).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> The result is mismanagement of budget without forwarding progress, and those that remain in the poverty loophole are accused of draining the system (Curtis, 2006).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-10">&#91;10&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Bias">Bias</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Bias"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Jill Suttie (2018),<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">&#91;11&#93;</a></sup> wrote that implicit bias can be transferred nonverbally to children with no more than a look or a gesture, and as such is a learned behavior. Critical thinking skills can ward off implicit bias, but without education and practice, habitual thoughts can cloud judgment and poorly affect future decisions. </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Decision-making">Decision-making</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Decision-making"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>A Dartmouth College (2016)<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">&#91;12&#93;</a></sup> study reported that probabilistic decision-making follows prior-based knowledge of failure in similar situations. Rather than choose success, people respond as if the failure has already taken place. Those who have experienced intergenerational poverty are most susceptible to this kind of learned behavior (Wagmiller &amp; Adelman, 2009).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Intergenerational">Intergenerational</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Intergenerational"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Professors of Sociology Wagmiller and Adelman (2009)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-13">&#91;13&#93;</a></sup> asserted that roughly 35–46% of people who have experienced hardship in young and middle adulthood also experienced moderate to severe poverty in childhood. As of 2018, 7.5 million people experienced poverty in California alone (Downs, 2018).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14">&#91;14&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Mental_illness">Mental illness</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Mental illness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>In a qualitative study, Rudnick et al., (2014),<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> studied people living in poverty with mental illness and determined that participants felt that wellness care, nutrition, housing, and jobs were severely lacking. Respondents asserted that the most significant problem was access to quality services; bureaucratic systems appear to be devoid of logic and treatment by providers were often unaccommodating and uncooperative (Rudnick et al., 2014).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-15">&#91;15&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Lowered_productivity">Lowered productivity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Lowered productivity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>The stress of worrying about one's personal finances can cause lower productivity. One study on factory workers in India found payment earlier in the work period increased average worker output by 6.2%.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16">&#91;16&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Choices_and_culture">Choices and culture</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Choices and culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>According to a 2009 and 2011 study made by the <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution" title="Brookings Institution">Brookings Institution</a>, people who finish high school, get a full-time job, and wait until age 21 to marry and have children end up with a poverty rate of only 2%, whereas people who follow none of the steps end up with a poverty rate of 76%.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">&#91;17&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">&#91;18&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_childhood_adversity_and_basic_needs_stressors_contributing_to_the_cycle_of_generational_poverty">Early childhood adversity and basic needs stressors contributing to the cycle of generational poverty</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: Early childhood adversity and basic needs stressors contributing to the cycle of generational poverty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <ul><li>The stress of early childhood adversities, including basic need stressors and, at times, abuse and neglect are major causes of generational poverty. Studies have shown that the trauma of child abuse manifests negatively in adult life in overall health and even in employment status.<sup id="cite_ref-Metzler,_M._2017_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Metzler,_M._2017-19">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup> Abuse and neglect are potential adversities facing those in poverty, the adversity that is shared among all below the poverty line is the daily stress over basic needs. "The stress of meeting basic needs takes all precedent in the family, and children learn that the only way to survive is to focus on getting basic needs met".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">&#91;20&#93;</a></sup> Every member of a household in poverty lives the struggle of basic needs stressors and is impacted by it. The ability to secure and pay for childcare is another contributing factor to the problems those in poverty have with finding and keeping a job.<sup id="cite_ref-Wooton2017_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wooton2017-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> These stressors are not just unpleasant, they are catastrophic to a body's health and development. Exposure to chronic stress can induce changes in the architecture of different regions of the developing brain (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus), which can impact a range of important functions, such as regulating the stress response, attention, memory, planning, and learning new skills, and also contribute to dysregulation of inflammatory response systems that can lead to a chronic "wear and tear" effect on multiple organ systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Metzler,_M._2017_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Metzler,_M._2017-19">&#91;19&#93;</a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS). (July 2023)">better&#160;source&#160;needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> Chronic stress is detrimental to our health and has even been proven to harm memory and organs, including the brain. Working memory, defined as a human's capacity to store information in the brain for immediate use, is known to be shorter for children raised in poverty versus those raised in even a middle-class environment.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">&#91;22&#93;</a></sup> Children suffering through basic needs stressors from the earliest of years have to work harder than their peers to learn and absorb information.</li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Family_background">Family background</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section: Family background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>A 2002 research paper titled "The Changing Effect of Family Background on the Incomes of American Adults" analyzed changes in the determinants of <a href="/wiki/Family_income" title="Family income">family income</a> between 1961 and 1999, focusing on the effect of parental education, occupational rank, income, marital status, family size, region of residence, <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">race</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnicity</a>. The paper (1) outlines a simple framework for thinking about how family background affects children's family and income, (2) summarizes previous research on trends in intergenerational inheritance in the United States, (3) describes the data used as a basis for the research which it describes, (4) discusses trends in <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">inequality</a> among parents, (5) describes how the effects of parental inequality changed between 1961 and 1999, (6) contrasts effects at the top and bottom of the distribution, and (7) discusses whether intergenerational correlations of zero would be desirable. The paper concludes by posing the question of whether reducing the intergenerational correlation is an efficient strategy for reducing poverty or inequality. </p><p>Because improving the skills of disadvantaged children seems relatively easy, it is an attractive strategy. However, judging by American experience since the 1960s, improving the skills of disadvantaged children has proved difficult. As a result, the paper suggests, there are probably cheaper and easier ways to reduce poverty and inequality, such as supplementing the wages of the poor or changing <a href="/wiki/Immigration" title="Immigration">immigration</a> policy so that it drives down the relative wages of skilled rather than unskilled workers. These alternative strategies would not reduce intergenerational correlations, but they would reduce the economic gap between children who started life with all the disadvantages instead of all the advantages.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">&#91;23&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Another paper, titled <i>Do poor children become poor adults?</i>, which was originally presented at a 2004 symposium on the future of children from disadvantaged families in France, and was later included in a 2006 collection of papers related to the theme of the dynamics of <a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">inequality</a> and poverty, discusses generational <a href="/wiki/Economic_mobility" title="Economic mobility">income mobility</a> in North America and Europe. The paper opens by observing that in the United States almost one half of children born to low income parents become low income adults, four in ten in the United Kingdom, and one-third in Canada. The paper goes on to observe that rich children also tend to become rich adults—four in ten in the U.S. and the U.K., and as many as one-third in Canada. The paper argues, however, that money is not the only or even the most important factor influencing intergenerational income mobility. The rewards to higher skilled and/or higher educated individuals in the <a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">labor market</a> and the opportunities for children to obtain the required skills and credentials are two important factors.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="sentence show signs of editing that have altered its original meaning. It doesn&#39;t seem to make sense anymore. Too long maybe? (August 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> Conclusions that income transfers to lower income individuals may be important to children but they should not be counted on to strongly promote generational mobility. The paper recommends that governments focus on investments in children to ensure that they have the skills and opportunities to succeed in the labor market, and observes that though this has historically meant promoting access to higher and higher levels of education, it is becoming increasingly important that attention be paid to <a href="/wiki/Preschool_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Preschool education">preschool</a> and early childhood <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">&#91;24&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Lack_of_jobs_due_to_deindustrialization">Lack of jobs due to deindustrialization</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section: Lack of jobs due to deindustrialization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spatial_mismatch" title="Spatial mismatch">Spatial mismatch</a></div> <p>Sociologist <a href="/wiki/William_Julius_Wilson" title="William Julius Wilson">William Julius Wilson</a> has said that the <a href="/wiki/Economic_restructuring" title="Economic restructuring">economic restructuring</a> of changes from manufacturing to a service-based economy has led to a high percentage of joblessness in the inner-cities and with it a loss of skills and an inability to find jobs. This "mismatch" of skills to jobs available is said to be the main driver of poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">&#91;25&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Effects_of_modern_education">Effects of modern education</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="Edit section: Effects of modern education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Research shows that schools with students who perform lower than the norm are also those hiring least-qualified teachers as a result of new teachers generally working in the area that they grew up in. This leads to certain schools not producing many students who enter <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_education" title="Tertiary education">tertiary education</a>. <a href="/wiki/Graduation" title="Graduation">Graduates</a> who previously attended these schools are not as skilled as they would be if they had gone to a school with higher-qualified instructors. This leads to education perpetuating a cycle of poverty. People who choose to work in the schools close to them do not adequately supply the school with enough teachers. The schools must then outsource their teachers from other areas. <a href="/wiki/Susanna_Loeb" title="Susanna Loeb">Susanna Loeb</a> from the School of Education at Stanford conducted a study and found that teachers who are brought in from the suburbs are 10 times more likely to transfer out of the school after their initial year. The fact that the teachers from the suburbs leave appears to be an influential factor for schools hiring more teachers from that area. The lack of adequate education for children is part of what allows for the cycle of poverty to continue.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">&#91;26&#93;</a></sup> The problem undergoing this is the lack of updating the knowledge of the staff. Schools have continued to conduct professional development the same way they have for decades.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">&#91;27&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Culture_of_poverty">Culture of poverty</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="Edit section: Culture of poverty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Another theory for the perpetual cycle of poverty is that poor people have their own culture with a different set of values and beliefs that keep them trapped within that cycle from generation to generation. This theory has been explored by Ruby K. Payne in her book <i>A Framework for Understanding Poverty</i>. In this book she explains how a <a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">social class system in the United States</a> exists, where there is a wealthy upper class, a middle class, and the working poor class. These classes each have their own set of rules and values, which differ from each other. To understand the culture of poverty, Payne describes how these rules affect the poor and tend to keep them trapped in this continual cycle. Time is treated differently by the poor; they generally do not plan ahead but simply live in the moment, which keeps them from saving money that could help their children escape poverty. </p><p>Payne emphasizes how important it is when working with the poor to understand their unique cultural differences so that one does not get frustrated but instead tries to work with them on their ideologies and help them to understand how they can help themselves and their children escape the cycle. One aspect of generational poverty is a <a href="/wiki/Learned_helplessness" title="Learned helplessness">learned helplessness</a> that is passed from parents to children; a mentality that there is no way for one to get out of poverty and so in order to make the best of the situation one must enjoy what one can when one can. This leads to such habits as spending money immediately, often on unnecessary goods such as alcohol and cigarettes, thus teaching their children to do the same and trapping them in poverty. Another important point Payne makes is that leaving poverty is not as simple as acquiring money and moving into a higher class but also includes giving up certain relationships in exchange for achievement. A student's peers can have an influence on the child's level of achievement. Coming from a low-income household a child could be teased or expected to fall short academically. This can cause a student to feel discouraged and hold back when it comes to getting involved more with their education because they are scared to be teased if they fail. This helps to explain why the culture of poverty tends to endure from generation to generation as most of the relationships the poor have are within that class.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">&#91;28&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The "culture of poverty" theory has been debated and critiqued by many people, including Eleanor Burke Leacock (and others) in her book <i>The Culture of Poverty: A Critique</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29">&#91;29&#93;</a></sup> Leacock claims that people who use the term, "culture of poverty" only "contribute to the distorted characterizations of the poor." In addition, Michael Hannan in an essay<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">&#91;30&#93;</a></sup> argues that the "culture of poverty" is "essentially untestable." This is due to many things including the highly subjective nature of poverty and issues concerning the universal act of classifying only <i>some</i> impoverished people as trapped in the culture. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Life_shocks">Life shocks</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="Edit section: Life shocks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>2004 research in New Zealand<sup id="cite_ref-NZ_Herald_10390891_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NZ_Herald_10390891-31">&#91;31&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">&#91;32&#93;</a></sup> produced a report that showed that "life shocks" can be endured only to a limited extent, after which people are much more likely to be tipped into hardship. The researchers found very little differences in living standards for people who have endured up to 7 negative events in their lifetime. People who had 8 or more life shocks were dramatically more likely to live in poverty than those who had 0 to 7 life shocks. A few of the life shocks studied were: </p> <ul><li>Marriage (or similar) break-ups (<a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorce</a>)</li> <li>Forced sale of house</li> <li>Unexpected and substantial drop in income</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction" title="Eviction">Eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bankruptcy" title="Bankruptcy">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li>Substantial financial loss</li> <li>Redundancy (being laid off from a job)</li> <li>Becoming a <a href="/wiki/Single_parent" title="Single parent">single parent</a></li> <li>3 months or more unemployed</li> <li>Major damage to home</li> <li>House burgled</li> <li>Victim of violence</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration" class="mw-redirect" title="Incarceration">Incarceration</a></li> <li>A non-custodial sentence (<a href="/wiki/Community_service" title="Community service">community service</a>, or fines, but not imprisonment)</li> <li>Illness lasting three weeks or more</li> <li>Major injury or health problem</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unplanned_pregnancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unplanned pregnancy">Unplanned pregnancy</a> and birth of a child</li></ul> <p>The study focused on just a few possible life shocks, but many others are likely as traumatic or more so. Chronic <a href="/wiki/Posttraumatic_stress_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Posttraumatic stress disorder">PTSD</a>, <a href="/wiki/Complex_post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Complex post-traumatic stress disorder">complex PTSD</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> sufferers could have innumerable causes for their mental illness, including those studied above. The study is subject to some criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-NZ_Herald_10391334_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NZ_Herald_10391334-33">&#91;33&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Tracking_in_education">Tracking in education</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="Edit section: Tracking in education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>History in the United States has shown that Americans saw education as the way to end the perpetual cycle of poverty. In the present, children from low to middle income households are at a disadvantage. They are twice as likely to be held back and more likely not to graduate from high school. Recent studies have shown that the cause for the disparity among academic achievement results from the school's structure where some students succeed from an added advantage and others fail as a result of lacking that advantage. Educational institutions with a learning disparity are causing education to be a sustaining factor for the cycle of poverty. One prominent example of this type of school structures is <a href="/wiki/Tracking_(education)" title="Tracking (education)">tracking</a>, which is predominantly used to help organize a classroom so the <a href="/wiki/Statistical_dispersion" title="Statistical dispersion">variability</a> of academic ability in classes is decreased. Students are tracked based on their ability level, generally based on a standardized test after which they are given different course requirements. Some people<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (January 2012)">who?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> believe that tracking "enhances academic achievement and improves the self-concept of students by permitting them to progress at their own pace."<sup id="cite_ref-Ansalone_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ansalone-34">&#91;34&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The negative side is that studies have shown that tracking decreases students' opportunity to learn. Tracking also has a disproportionate number of <a href="/wiki/Hispanic_and_Latino_Americans" title="Hispanic and Latino Americans">Latinos</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African Americans</a> that have low <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a> in the lower learning tracks. Tracking separates <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social classes</a> putting the poor and <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority</a> children in lower tracks where they receive second-rate education, and the students who are better off are placed in upper tracks where they have many opportunities for success. Studies have found that in addition to the higher tracks having more extensive curriculum, there is also a disparity among the teachers and instructional resources provided. There appears to be a race/class bias which results in intelligent children not receiving the skills or opportunities needed for success or social/economic mobility,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">&#91;35&#93;</a></sup> thus continuing the cycle of poverty. There is an overall perception that American education is failing and research has done nothing to counter this statement, but instead has revealed the reality and severity of the issue of the existence of tracking and other structures that cause the cycle of poverty to continue.<sup id="cite_ref-Ansalone_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ansalone-34">&#91;34&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Theories_and_strategies_for_breaking_the_cycle">Theories and strategies for breaking the cycle</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="Edit section: Theories and strategies for breaking the cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Shiva_Kumar_-_2_-_Importance_of_MDGs_in_redifining_the_Poverty--_TVP.webm/220px--Shiva_Kumar_-_2_-_Importance_of_MDGs_in_redifining_the_Poverty--_TVP.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="811" data-mwtitle="Shiva_Kumar_-_2_-_Importance_of_MDGs_in_redifining_the_Poverty--_TVP.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Shiva_Kumar_-_2_-_Importance_of_MDGs_in_redifining_the_Poverty--_TVP.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/af/Shiva_Kumar_-_2_-_Importance_of_MDGs_in_redifining_the_Poverty--_TVP.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp8, vorbis&quot;" data-width="480" data-height="270" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/Shiva_Kumar_-_2_-_Importance_of_MDGs_in_redifining_the_Poverty--_TVP.webm/Shiva_Kumar_-_2_-_Importance_of_MDGs_in_redifining_the_Poverty--_TVP.webm.m3u8" type="application/vnd.apple.mpegurl" data-transcodekey="m3u8" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/af/Shiva_Kumar_-_2_-_Importance_of_MDGs_in_redifining_the_Poverty--_TVP.webm/Shiva_Kumar_-_2_-_Importance_of_MDGs_in_redifining_the_Poverty--_TVP.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs=&quot;vp9, opus&quot;" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption><a href="/wiki/A._K._Shiva_Kumar" title="A. K. Shiva Kumar">Shiva Kumar</a> – The importance of MDGs in redefining what are the poverty drivers</figcaption></figure> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="General_approaches">General approaches</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="Edit section: General approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>While many governmental officials are still trying to solve poverty, many states and localities are making an effort to break the cycle. Mayor <a href="/wiki/Michael_Bloomberg" title="Michael Bloomberg">Bloomberg</a> of New York City has been advocating a plan where parents are paid up to $5,000 a year for meeting certain goals that will better their lives. This policy was modeled after a Mexican initiative that aims to help poor families make better decisions that will help them in the long-term and break cycle of poverty and dependence that have been known to last for generations. In addition, many states also have been making an attempt to help break the cycle. For example, a bill has been proposed in the California Assembly that "would establish an advisory Childhood Poverty Council to develop a plan to reduce child poverty in the state by half by 2017 and eliminate it by 2027".<sup id="cite_ref-Billitteri_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Billitteri-36">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup> Even when the plan has poverty reduction as the goal, a rise in child poverty might be the reality for many states as it was in Connecticut. States are attempting to not only decrease the number of people in the cycle of poverty, but to also adjust the stringent work requirements that resulted from Congress's <a href="/wiki/Social_welfare_provision" class="mw-redirect" title="Social welfare provision">welfare</a> reform. The tougher work restrictions have upset many poverty advocates who believe the new regulations prevent individuals who are vulnerable or who lack skills from preparing for work. California Democratic Representative McDermott believes as a result of this and other effects of the new limitations, it has been harder for individuals to escape a life of <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Billitteri_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Billitteri-36">&#91;36&#93;</a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1062260506">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{background-color:#F9F9F9;text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:30%; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>Relatively modest increases in benefit levels for programs that assist nonworking individuals and low-income workers might well be sufficient to bring the United States into line with...other affluent nations in its degree of <a href="/wiki/Poverty_reduction" title="Poverty reduction">poverty reduction</a>. </p> </blockquote> <p><cite class="left-aligned" style="">Lane Kenworthy<sup id="cite_ref-Kenworthy_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenworthy-37">&#91;37&#93;</a></sup></cite> </p> </div> <p>In his book <i>Children in Jeopardy: Can We Break the Cycle</i>, Irving B. Harris discusses ways in which children can be helped to begin breaking the cycle of poverty. He stresses the importance of starting early and teaching children the importance of education from a very young age as well as making sure these children get the same educational opportunities as students who are richer. Family values such as nurturing children and encouraging them to do well in school need to be promoted as well as a non-authoritarian approach to parenting. Harris also discusses the importance of discouraging teenage pregnancy and finding ways in which to decrease this phenomenon so that when children are born they are planned and wanted and thus have a better chance at breaking the cycle of poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">&#91;38&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>It has been suggested by researchers like Lane Kenworthy that increasing welfare benefits and extending them to non-working families can help reduce poverty as nations that have done so have had better results.<sup id="cite_ref-Kenworthy_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kenworthy-37">&#91;37&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Harlem_Children%27s_Zone" title="Harlem Children&#39;s Zone">Harlem Children's Zone</a> is working to end generational poverty within a 100-block section of <a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a> using an approach that provides educational support and services for children and their families from birth through college.<sup id="cite_ref-TheHczProject_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheHczProject-39">&#91;39&#93;</a></sup> This approach has been recognized as a model by the <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Barack_Obama" title="Presidency of Barack Obama">Obama administration</a>'s anti-poverty program.<sup id="cite_ref-Obama20Promise_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Obama20Promise-40">&#91;40&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Two-generation_poverty_alleviation_approach">Two-generation poverty alleviation approach</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="Edit section: Two-generation poverty alleviation approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>A two-generation poverty alleviation approach focuses on the education, health and social services, and opportunities that parents and children desperately need to lift their families from the depths of the bondage of poverty to a stable and healthy state mentally, physically, and financially. A two-generation approach is a holistic plan for poverty alleviation and "is needed to help low-income parents and children improve their situation".<sup id="cite_ref-Wooton2017_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wooton2017-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> Using a two-generation approach, parents are taught additional career skills, provided leadership training, and given access to job opportunities with higher wages. Children are given access to better educational programs, free preschool, free childcare, and the supplies they'll need to be successful in school. The family unit receives counseling for the current stressors of poverty as well as childhood trauma. All members of the household are given access to full healthcare benefits, food services at home and in school, and financial relief for their bills, clothing, and transportation in the short-term to relieve the basic needs stressors that prevent the family from taking the time to learn and grow. The preschool program Head Start believes that the only system that works for a preschool is one where the child as a whole is considered, which includes their health and their parents' ability to succeed.<sup id="cite_ref-Wooton2017_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wooton2017-21">&#91;21&#93;</a></sup> The two-generation poverty alleviation approach sees each member relieved of the basic needs stressors that plague their minds, ensures that they are physically and mentally healthy, provides them the opportunities to learn the skills needed for higher wage jobs, and gives them access to higher wage jobs without discrimination. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Austerity">Austerity</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="Edit section: Austerity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p><a href="/wiki/Mark_Blyth" title="Mark Blyth">Mark Blyth</a>, whose 2014 book on austerity claims that austerity not only fails to stimulate growth, but effectively passes that debt down to the working classes.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">&#91;41&#93;</a></sup> As such, many academics such as Andrew Gamble view Austerity in Britain less as an economic necessity, and more as a tool of statecraft, driven by ideology and not economic requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">&#91;42&#93;</a></sup> A study published in <i><a href="/wiki/The_BMJ" title="The BMJ">The BMJ</a></i> in November 2017 found the Conservative government austerity programme had been linked to approximately 120,000 deaths since 2010; however, this was disputed, for example on the grounds that it was an observational study which did not show cause and effect.<sup id="cite_ref-tory-austerity-deaths_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tory-austerity-deaths-43">&#91;43&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">&#91;44&#93;</a></sup> More studies claim adverse effects of austerity on <a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">population health</a>, which include an increase in the mortality rate among pensioners which has been linked to unprecedented reductions in income support,<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">&#91;45&#93;</a></sup> an increase in suicides and the prescription of antidepressants for patients with mental health issues,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">&#91;46&#93;</a></sup> and an increase in violence, self-harm, and suicide in prisons.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">&#91;47&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">&#91;48&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Mass_incarceration">Mass incarceration</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="Edit section: Mass incarceration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Several scholars have linked <a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">mass incarceration of the poor in the United States</a> with the rise of neoliberalism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaymesVidal_de_HaymesMiller20153,_346_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaymesVidal_de_HaymesMiller20153,_346-49">&#91;49&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">&#91;50&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGerstle2022130–132_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerstle2022130–132-51">&#91;51&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">&#91;52&#93;</a></sup> Sociologist Loïc Wacquant and <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> economic geographer <a href="/wiki/David_Harvey" title="David Harvey">David Harvey</a> have argued that the criminalization of poverty and mass incarceration is a neoliberal policy for dealing with social instability among economically marginalized populations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWacquant2009125–126,_312_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWacquant2009125–126,_312-53">&#91;53&#93;</a></sup> According to Wacquant, this situation follows the implementation of other neoliberal policies, which have allowed for the retrenchment of the social <a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">welfare state</a> and the rise of punitive <a href="/wiki/Workfare" title="Workfare">workfare</a>, whilst increasing <a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">gentrification</a> of urban areas, <a href="/wiki/Privatization" title="Privatization">privatization</a> of public functions, the shrinking of collective protections for the working class via economic <a href="/wiki/Deregulation" title="Deregulation">deregulation</a> and the rise of underpaid, <a href="/wiki/Precarity" title="Precarity">precarious wage labor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWacquant200953–54_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWacquant200953–54-54">&#91;54&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">&#91;55&#93;</a></sup> By contrast, it is extremely lenient in dealing with those in the upper echelons of society, in particular when it comes to economic crimes of the <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper class</a> and corporations such as <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Embezzlement" title="Embezzlement">embezzlement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insider_trading" title="Insider trading">insider trading</a>, credit and <a href="/wiki/Insurance_fraud" title="Insurance fraud">insurance fraud</a>, <a href="/wiki/Money_laundering" title="Money laundering">money laundering</a> and violation of commerce and labor codes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWacquant2009125–126,_312_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWacquant2009125–126,_312-53">&#91;53&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">&#91;56&#93;</a></sup> According to Wacquant, neoliberalism does not shrink government, but instead sets up a "centaur state" with little governmental oversight for those at the top and strict control of those at the bottom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWacquant2009125–126,_312_53-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWacquant2009125–126,_312-53">&#91;53&#93;</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">&#91;57&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Effects_on_children">Effects on children</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="Edit section: Effects on children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Child_poverty" title="Child poverty">Child poverty</a></div> <p>Children are most vulnerable to the cycle of poverty. Because a child is dependent on their guardian(s), if a child's guardian is in poverty, then they will be also. It is almost impossible for a child to pull themself out of the cycle due to age, lack of experience, lack of a job, etc. Because children are at such a young and impressionable age, the scars they gain from experiencing poverty early in life inevitably carry on into their adult life. "Childhood lays the foundations for adult abilities, interests, and motivation."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">&#91;58&#93;</a></sup> Therefore, if they learn certain poverty-related behaviors in childhood, the behaviors are more likely to perpetuate. </p><p>Studies have shown that household structure sometimes has a connection to <a href="/wiki/Childhood_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="Childhood poverty">childhood poverty</a>. Most studies on the subject also show that the children who are in poverty tend to come from single-parent households (most often matriarchal). In 1997, nearly 8.5 million (57%) poor children in the US came from single-parent households.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">&#91;59&#93;</a></sup> With the rate of divorce increasing and the number of children born out of wedlock increasing, the number of children who are born into or fall into single-parent households is also increasing. However, this does not mean that the child/children will be impoverished because of it. </p><p>According to Ashworth, Hill, &amp; Walker (2004), both urban and rural poor children are more likely to be isolated from the nonpoor in schools, neighborhoods, and their communities. Human nature is to have relationships with others but when a child is isolated due to their socioeconomic status, it is hard to overcome that when the status does not improve. Therefore, poor children also have more tense relationships which sometimes results in abnormal, non-constructive, or other unexplained behaviors. </p><p>There have been programs developed to specifically address the needs of poor children. <a href="/wiki/Francis_Marion_University" title="Francis Marion University">Francis Marion University</a>'s Center of Excellence to Prepare Teachers of Children of Poverty has a number of initiatives devoted to equipping teachers to be more effective in raising the achievement of children of poverty. It is located in South Carolina and provides direct teacher training as well as facilitates research in the area of poverty and scholastic achievement. <a href="/wiki/Head_Start_(program)" title="Head Start (program)">Head Start</a> is a program for low income families who provides early childhood education as well as parent involvement<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Head Start *provides* parental involvement? That is chronologically impossible. (March 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup>. Results show that attending these programs increases children's academic outcomes. The problem is that in high poverty areas this is supposed to be a helpful resource, but they start to hold lower quality<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2022)">clarification needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> due to lack of funds to keep places<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (March 2022)">which?</span></a></i>&#93;</sup> updated.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">&#91;60&#93;</a></sup> </p><p>Often the communities in which impoverished children grow up in are crime ridden areas; examples of these areas in America are <a href="/wiki/Harlem" title="Harlem">Harlem</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Bronx" title="The Bronx">the Bronx</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61">&#91;61&#93;</a></sup> Crime and maltreatment at a young age may reduce a child's ability to learn by up to 5%.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62">&#91;62&#93;</a></sup> Adopting a criminal lifestyle only worsens the effects of the cycle as they are often incarcerated or killed in many types of <a href="/wiki/Gang_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Gang violence">gang violence</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63">&#91;63&#93;</a></sup> </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Developing_world">Developing world</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="Edit section: Developing world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Developing_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing world">developing world</a>, many factors can contribute to a poverty trap, including: limited access to <a href="/wiki/Credit_(finance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Credit (finance)">credit</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capital_markets" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital markets">capital markets</a>, extreme <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a> (which depletes agricultural production potential), corrupt governance, <a href="/wiki/Capital_flight" title="Capital flight">capital flight</a>, poor education systems, <a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">disease ecology</a>, lack of <a href="/wiki/Public_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health care">public health care</a>, war and poor <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64">&#91;64&#93;</a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Sachs" title="Jeffrey Sachs">Jeffrey Sachs</a>, in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Poverty" title="The End of Poverty">The End of Poverty</a></i>, discusses the poverty trap and prescribes a set of policy initiatives intended to end the trap. He recommends that <a href="/wiki/Aid_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="Aid agencies">aid agencies</a> behave as <a href="/wiki/Venture_capitalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture capitalists">venture capitalists</a> funding <a href="/wiki/Start-up_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Start-up companies">start-up companies</a>. Venture capitalists, once they choose to invest in a venture, do not give only half or a third of the amount they feel the venture needs in order to become profitable; if they did, their money would be wasted. If all goes as planned, the venture will eventually become profitable and the venture capitalist will experience an adequate rate of return on investment. Likewise, Sachs proposes, <a href="/wiki/Developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed countries">developed countries</a> cannot give only a fraction of what is needed in <a href="/wiki/Aid" title="Aid">aid</a> and expect to reverse the poverty trap in Africa. Just like any other start-up, developing nations absolutely must receive the amount of aid necessary (and promised at the <a href="/wiki/G-8_Summit" class="mw-redirect" title="G-8 Summit">G-8 Summit</a> in 2005<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65">&#91;65&#93;</a></sup>) for them to begin to reverse the poverty trap. The problem is that unlike start-ups, which simply go bankrupt if they fail to receive funding, in Africa people continue to die at a high rate due in large part to lack of sufficient aid. </p><p> Sachs points out that the extreme poor lack six major kinds of <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a>: <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a>, business capital, infrastructure, <a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">natural capital</a>, public institutional capital, and knowledge capital.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66">&#91;66&#93;</a></sup> He then details the poverty trap: </p><blockquote><p>The poor start with a very low level of capital per person, and then find themselves trapped in poverty because the <a href="/wiki/Ratio" title="Ratio">ratio</a> of capital per person actually falls from generation to generation. The amount of capital per person declines when the population is growing faster than capital is being accumulated ... The question for growth in per capita income is whether the net <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> is large enough to keep up with <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a>.</p></blockquote> <p>Sachs argues that sufficient <a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign aid">foreign aid</a> can make up for the lack of capital in poor countries, maintaining that, "If the foreign assistance is substantial enough, and lasts long enough, the capital stock rises sufficiently to lift households above subsistence." </p><p>Sachs believes the <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public sector</a> should focus mainly on investments in human capital (health, education, nutrition), infrastructure (roads, power, water and sanitation, environmental conservation), natural capital (conservation of biodiversity and ecosystems), public institutional capital (a well-run public administration, judicial system, police force), and parts of knowledge capital (scientific research for health, energy, agriculture, climate, ecology).<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67">&#91;67&#93;</a></sup> Sachs leaves business capital investments to the private sector, which he claims would more efficiently use funding to develop the profitable enterprises necessary to sustain growth. In this sense, Sachs views public institutions as useful in providing the <a href="/wiki/Public_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Public goods">public goods</a> necessary to begin the <a href="/wiki/Rostovian_take-off_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Rostovian take-off model">Rostovian take-off model</a>, but maintains that <a href="/wiki/Private_goods" class="mw-redirect" title="Private goods">private goods</a> are more efficiently produced and distributed by <a href="/wiki/Private_enterprise" class="mw-redirect" title="Private enterprise">private enterprise</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68">&#91;68&#93;</a></sup> This is a widespread view in <a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_economics" title="Neoclassical economics">neoclassical economics</a>. </p><p>Several other forms of poverty traps are discussed in the literature,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69">&#91;69&#93;</a></sup> including nations being landlocked with bad neighbors; a vicious cycle of violent conflict; subsistence traps in which farmers wait for middlemen before they specialize but middlemen wait for a region to specialize first; working capital traps in which petty sellers have inventories too sparse to earn enough money to get a bigger inventory; low skill traps in which workers wait for jobs using special skill but firms wait for workers to get such skills; nutritional traps in which individuals are too malnourished to work, yet too poor to afford <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_food_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable food systems">sustainable food</a>; and behavioral traps in which individuals cannot differentiate between temptation and non-temptation goods, and therefore cannot invest in the non-temptation goods which could help them begin to escape poverty. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boots_theory" title="Boots theory">Boots theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_consequences_of_criminal_conviction" title="Collateral consequences of criminal conviction">Collateral consequences of criminal conviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_poverty" title="Cost of poverty">Cost of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_poverty" title="Culture of poverty">Culture of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deprivation_index" class="mw-redirect" title="Deprivation index">Deprivation index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_inequality" title="Economic inequality">Economic inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_of_poverty" title="Feminization of poverty">Feminization of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horatio_Alger_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Horatio Alger myth">Horatio Alger myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_percentage_of_population_living_in_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty">List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Make_Poverty_History" title="Make Poverty History">Make Poverty History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_reduction" title="Poverty reduction">Poverty reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_threshold" title="Poverty threshold">Poverty threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_ghetto" title="Rural ghetto">Rural ghetto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_poverty" title="Theories of poverty">Theories of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtuous_circle_and_vicious_circle" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtuous circle and vicious circle">Virtuous circle and vicious circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_state" title="Welfare state">Welfare state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_trap" title="Welfare trap">Welfare trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare%27s_effect_on_poverty" title="Welfare&#39;s effect on 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.navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Poverty" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Poverty" title="Template:Poverty"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Poverty" title="Template talk:Poverty"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Poverty" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Poverty"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Poverty" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measuring_poverty" title="Measuring poverty">Measuring poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cycle of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guaranteed_minimum_income" title="Guaranteed minimum income">Guaranteed minimum income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_income" title="Universal basic income">Universal basic income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_basic_income_models" title="List of basic income models">List of basic income models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_reduction" title="Poverty reduction">Poverty reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Metrics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homeless_Vulnerability_Index" title="Homeless Vulnerability Index">Homeless Vulnerability Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misery_index_(economics)" title="Misery index (economics)">Misery index (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gini_coefficient" title="Gini coefficient">Gini coefficient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genuine_progress_indicator" title="Genuine progress indicator">Genuine progress indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatum_Prosperity_Index" title="Legatum Prosperity Index">Legatum Prosperity Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_gap_index" title="Poverty gap index">Poverty gap index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Poverty_Index" title="Human Poverty Index">Human Poverty Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multidimensional_Poverty_Index" title="Multidimensional Poverty Index">Multidimensional Poverty Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Index_of_Multiple_Deprivation" title="Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation">Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By Location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Algeria" title="Poverty in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Poverty in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Ethiopia" title="Poverty in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Kenya" title="Poverty in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Namibia" title="Poverty in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Niger" title="Poverty in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Nigeria" title="Poverty in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Tanzania" title="Poverty in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Uganda" title="Poverty in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Zimbabwe" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Afghanistan" title="Poverty in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Bangladesh" title="Poverty in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Cambodia" title="Poverty in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_China" title="Poverty in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Cyprus" title="Poverty in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_East_Timor" title="Poverty in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_India" title="Poverty in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Indonesia" title="Poverty in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Japan" title="Poverty in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Lebanon" title="Poverty in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_North_Korea" title="Poverty in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_South_Korea" title="Poverty in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Malaysia" title="Poverty in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Nepal" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Pakistan" title="Poverty in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Singapore" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Poverty in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Vietnam" title="Poverty in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Yemen" title="Poverty in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Cyprus" title="Poverty in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_France" title="Poverty in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Germany" title="Poverty in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Moldova" title="Poverty in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Norway" title="Poverty in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Poland" title="Poverty in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Romania" title="Poverty in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Switzerland" title="Poverty in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Turkey" title="Poverty in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Ukraine" title="Poverty in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Poverty in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Australia" title="Poverty in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_New_Zealand" title="Poverty in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">The Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Canada" title="Poverty in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Colombia" title="Poverty in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Guatemala" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Haiti" title="Poverty in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Honduras" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Mexico" title="Poverty in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Peru" title="Poverty in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Uruguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_poverty" title="Theories of poverty">Theories of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">Well-being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare" title="Welfare">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_culture" title="Welfare culture">Welfare culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_trap" title="Welfare trap">Welfare trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare%27s_effect_on_poverty" title="Welfare&#39;s effect on poverty">Welfare's effect on poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_welfare" title="Criticism of welfare">Criticism of welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wellness_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Wellness (medicine)">Wellness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">Quality of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-perceived_quality-of-life_scale" title="Self-perceived quality-of-life scale">Self-perceived quality-of-life scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_well-being" title="Subjective well-being">Subjective well-being</a> (SWB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suboptimal_health" title="Suboptimal health">Suboptimal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(psychological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (psychological)">Stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_poverty" title="Rural poverty">Rural access issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Providing_Urban_Amenities_to_Rural_Areas" title="Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas">Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-materialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-materialism">Post-materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pen%27s_parade" title="Pen&#39;s parade">Pen's parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_poverty" title="Culture of poverty">Culture of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_poverty" title="Causes of poverty">Causes of poverty</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_poverty" style="padding:3px"><table 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id="Diseases_of_poverty" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Diseases of poverty</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">Malaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">Tuberculosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">Measles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">Pneumonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">Diarrheal diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">Plague</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neglected_tropical_diseases" title="Neglected tropical diseases">Neglected diseases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">Cholera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">Chagas disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">African sleeping sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">Schistosomiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dracunculiasis" title="Dracunculiasis">Dracunculiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">River blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visceral_leishmaniasis" title="Visceral leishmaniasis">Leishmaniasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_review" title="Priority review">Priority review voucher</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt>See also</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_percentage_of_population_living_in_poverty" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty">List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty</a> · <a href="/wiki/Template:Deprivation_Indicators" title="Template:Deprivation Indicators">Deprivation and poverty indicators</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1011085734">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Costas Azariadis and John Stachurski, "Poverty Traps," <i>Handbook of Economic Growth</i>, 2005, 326.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hutchinson-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hutchinson_2-0">^{<i><b>a</b></i>}</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hutchinson_2-1">^{<i><b>b</b></i>}</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Cycle+of+poverty">Hutchinson Encyclopedia</a>, Cycle of poverty</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marger (2008). Examples of these disadvantages working in a circular process would be: economic decline, low personal income, no funds for school, which leads to lack of education. 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"Poverty and Inequality Among Children". <i>Annual Review of Sociology</i>. <b>23</b> (1): 121–145. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.soc.23.1.121">10.1146/annurev.soc.23.1.121</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2952546">2952546</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Sociology&amp;rft.atitle=Poverty+and+Inequality+Among+Children&amp;rft.volume=23&amp;rft.issue=1&amp;rft.pages=121-145&amp;rft.date=1997-08&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.soc.23.1.121&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2952546%23id-name%3DJSTOR&amp;rft.aulast=Lichter&amp;rft.aufirst=Daniel+T.&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACycle+of+poverty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFMorrisseyVinopal2018" class="citation journal cs1">Morrissey, Taryn W.; Vinopal, Katie (April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://figshare.com/articles/preprint/Center-based_early_care_and_education_and_children_s_school_readiness_Do_impacts_vary_by_neighborhood_poverty_/23892117">"Center-based early care and education and children's school readiness: Do impacts vary by neighborhood poverty?"</a>. <i>Developmental Psychology</i>. <b>54</b> (4): 757–771. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fdev0000470">10.1037/dev0000470</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29154645">29154645</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a>&#160;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4577964">4577964</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=Developmental+Psychology&amp;rft.atitle=Center-based+early+care+and+education+and+children%27s+school+readiness%3A+Do+impacts+vary+by+neighborhood+poverty%3F&amp;rft.volume=54&amp;rft.issue=4&amp;rft.pages=757-771&amp;rft.date=2018-04&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4577964%23id-name%3DS2CID&amp;rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29154645&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2Fdev0000470&amp;rft.aulast=Morrissey&amp;rft.aufirst=Taryn+W.&amp;rft.au=Vinopal%2C+Katie&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffigshare.com%2Farticles%2Fpreprint%2FCenter-based_early_care_and_education_and_children_s_school_readiness_Do_impacts_vary_by_neighborhood_poverty_%2F23892117&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACycle+of+poverty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><cite id="CITEREFSandovalKappstatterParascandola2011" class="citation news cs1">Sandoval, Edgar; Kappstatter, Bob; Parascandola, Rocco (18 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/violence-rises-new-york-city-housing-developments-statistics-show-article-1.152331">"Violence rises in New York City's housing developments, statistics show"</a>. <i>NY Daily News</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.jtitle=NY+Daily+News&amp;rft.atitle=Violence+rises+in+New+York+City%27s+housing+developments%2C+statistics+show&amp;rft.date=2011-01-18&amp;rft.aulast=Sandoval&amp;rft.aufirst=Edgar&amp;rft.au=Kappstatter%2C+Bob&amp;rft.au=Parascandola%2C+Rocco&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nydailynews.com%2Fnews%2Fcrime%2Fviolence-rises-new-york-city-housing-developments-statistics-show-article-1.152331&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACycle+of+poverty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medpagetoday.com/Pediatrics/DomesticViolence/23748">Walsh, Nancy. "Child Abuse Affects Teen Learning." MedPage Today. MedPage Today, 06 Dec. 2010. Web. 24 Nov. 2012.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sandoval, Edgar, Bob Kappstatter, and Rocco Parascandola.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (September 2020)">full citation needed</span></a></i>&#93;</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bonds, M.H., D.C. Keenan, P. Rohani, and J. D. Sachs. 2010. "Poverty trap formed by the ecology of infectious diseases," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B, 277:1185–92. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1133582631"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2009.1778">10.1098/rspb.2009.1778</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Collier, Paul et al. "Flight Capital as a Portfolio Choice. " Development Research Group, World Bank.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sachs, Jeffrey D. The End of Poverty. Penguin Books, 2006. p. 244</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sachs, Jeffrey D. The End of Poverty. Penguin Books, 2006. p. 252</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sachs, Jeffrey D. <i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Poverty" title="The End of Poverty">The End of Poverty</a></i>. Penguin Books, 2006. p. (?)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done About It, Oxford University Press, 2007; Stephen C. Smith, Ending Global Poverty, Palgrave Macmillan 2005; Partha Dasgupta, An Inquiry into Well-being and Destitution, Oxford UP, 1995.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cycle_of_poverty&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1134653256">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Development_Cooperation_Handbook" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Development Cooperation Handbook">Development Cooperation Handbook</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Development_Cooperation_Handbook/The_factors_causing_poverty_and_suffering" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Development Cooperation Handbook/The factors causing poverty and suffering">The factors causing poverty and suffering</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1134653256"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/40px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/60px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/80px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiversity has learning resources about <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Eliminating_poverty" class="extiw" title="v:Eliminating poverty">Eliminating poverty</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <ul><li>"The Joint conference of African Ministers of Finance and Ministers of Economic Development and Planning Report." May, 1999, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.uneca.org/eca_resources/Major_ECA_Website/joint/capital.htm">[1]</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title="&#160;Dead link tagged March 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i>&#93;</span></sup></li> <li>Ajayi, S. Ibi, Mahsin, S. Khan. "External Debt and Capital Flight in Sub-Saharan Africa." IMF, 2000.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/nft/2000/extdebt/index.htm">[2]</a></li> <li>Collier, Paul et al. "Flight Capital as a Portfolio Choice." Development Research Group, World Bank.</li> <li>Emeagwali, Philip. Interview, "How does capital flight affect the average African?"<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MsSMDreH7us">[3]</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Critique_of_work" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Critique_of_work" title="Template:Critique of work"><abbr title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Critique_of_work" title="Template talk:Critique of work"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Critique_of_work" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Critique of work"><abbr title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;box-shadow:none;padding:0;">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Critique_of_work" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_work" title="Critique of work">Critique of work</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical persons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abbie_Hoffman" title="Abbie Hoffman">Abbie Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Bellamy" title="Edward Bellamy">Edward Bellamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfredo_M._Bonanno" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfredo M. Bonanno">Alfredo M. Bonanno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Gorz" title="André Gorz">André Gorz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Abolition_of_Work" title="The Abolition of Work">Bob Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%BCnther_Anders" title="Günther Anders">Günther Anders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Guy Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_B%C3%B6ll" title="Heinrich Böll">Heinrich Böll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Illich" title="Ivan Illich">Ivan Illich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Bakunin" title="Mikhail Bakunin">Mikhail Bakunin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lafargue" title="Paul Lafargue">Paul Lafargue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Benjamin" title="Walter Benjamin">Walter Benjamin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rubin" title="Jerry Rubin">Jerry Rubin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Pieper" title="Josef Pieper">Josef Pieper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Max Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Joseph_Proudhon" title="Pierre-Joseph Proudhon">Pierre-Joseph Proudhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raoul_Vaneigem" title="Raoul Vaneigem">Raoul Vaneigem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renzo_Novatore" title="Renzo Novatore">Renzo Novatore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zo_d%27Axa" title="Zo d&#39;Axa">Zo d'Axa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Contemporary persons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Berardi" title="Franco Berardi">Franco Berardi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L._Susan_Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="L. Susan Brown">L. Susan Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madeleine_Bunting" title="Madeleine Bunting">Madeleine Bunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Graeber" title="David Graeber">David Graeber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurizio_Lazzarato" title="Maurizio Lazzarato">Maurizio Lazzarato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claus_Peter_Ortlieb" title="Claus Peter Ortlieb">Claus Peter Ortlieb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roland_Paulsen" title="Roland Paulsen">Roland Paulsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Rifkin" title="Jeremy Rifkin">Jeremy Rifkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penelope_Rosemont" title="Penelope Rosemont">Penelope Rosemont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Slouka" title="Mark Slouka">Mark Slouka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Srnicek" title="Nick Srnicek">Nick Srnicek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_Wolfe" title="Claire Wolfe">Claire Wolfe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Zerzan" title="John Zerzan">John Zerzan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology and related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/996_working_hour_system" title="996 working hour system">996 working hour system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aktion_Arbeitsscheu_Reich" title="Aktion Arbeitsscheu Reich">Aktion Arbeitsscheu Reich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/All_work_and_no_play_makes_Jack_a_dull_boy" title="All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy">All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomism" title="Autonomism">Autonomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullshit_job" title="Bullshit job">Bullshit job</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cycle of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolce_far_niente" title="Dolce far niente">Dolce far niente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_overtime" title="Effects of overtime">Effects of overtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extermination_through_labour" title="Extermination through labour">Extermination through labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flextime" title="Flextime">Flextime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-day_workweek" title="Four-day workweek">Four-day workweek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uberisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Uberisation">Uberisation</a>&#160;/ <a href="/wiki/Gig_worker" title="Gig worker">Gig worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karoshi" title="Karoshi">Karoshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Money-rich,_time-poor" title="Money-rich, time-poor">Money-rich, time-poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neijuan" title="Neijuan">Neijuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">Occupational burnout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">Occupational stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_S.A._suicides" title="Orange S.A. suicides">Orange S.A. suicides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwork" title="Overwork">Overwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-work_society" title="Post-work society">Post-work society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_of_work" title="Refusal of work">Refusal of work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampo_generation" title="Sampo generation">Sampo generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-hour_day" title="Six-hour day">Six-hour day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_ping" title="Tang ping">Tang ping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_ethic" title="Work ethic">Work ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workaholic" title="Workaholic">Workaholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work%E2%80%93life_interface" title="Work–life interface">Work–life interface</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theater, movies, music and art</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%80_Nous_la_Libert%C3%A9" title="À Nous la Liberté">À Nous la Liberté</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Office_Space" title="Office Space">Office Space</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Public_Freedom_Service" title="Swedish Public Freedom Service">Swedish Public Freedom Service</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Take_This_Job_and_Shove_It" title="Take This Job and Shove It">Take This Job and Shove It</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Future_of_Work_and_Death" title="The Future of Work and Death">The Future of Work and Death</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Main_Thing_Is_Work!" title="The Main Thing Is Work!">The Main Thing Is Work!</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Working_Class_Goes_to_Heaven" title="The Working Class Goes to Heaven">The Working Class Goes to Heaven</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Yama%E2%80%94Attack_to_Attack" title="Yama—Attack to Attack">Yama—Attack to Attack</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Literature_critical_of_work_and_the_work_ethic" title="Category:Literature critical of work and the work ethic">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Anekdote_zur_Senkung_der_Arbeitsmoral" title="Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral">Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bartleby,_the_Scrivener" title="Bartleby, the Scrivener">Bartleby, the Scrivener</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bonjour_paresse" title="Bonjour paresse">Bonjour paresse</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bullshit_Jobs" title="Bullshit Jobs">Bullshit Jobs</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Conquest_of_Bread" title="The Conquest of Bread">The Conquest of Bread</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Economic_Reason" title="Critique of Economic Reason">Critique of Economic Reason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fight_Club_(novel)" title="Fight Club (novel)">Fight Club</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Future_Primitive_and_Other_Essays" title="Future Primitive and Other Essays">Future Primitive and Other Essays</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Idleness_and_Other_Essays" title="In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays">In Praise of Idleness and Other Essays</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Inventing_the_Future:_Postcapitalism_and_a_World_Without_Work" title="Inventing the Future: Postcapitalism and a World Without Work">Inventing the Future</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Manifesto_Against_Work" title="Manifesto Against Work">Manifesto Against Work</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Escapologist" title="New Escapologist">New Escapologist</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Poverty_of_Student_Life" title="On the Poverty of Student Life">On the Poverty of Student Life</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Steal_This_Book" title="Steal This Book">Steal This Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Abolition_of_Work" title="The Abolition of Work">The Abolition of Work</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Work" title="The End of Work">The End of Work</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Human_Use_of_Human_Beings" title="The Human Use of Human Beings">The Human Use of Human Beings</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Idler_(1993)" title="The Idler (1993)">The Idler</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Revolution_of_Everyday_Life" title="The Revolution of Everyday Life">The Revolution of Everyday Life</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Right_to_Be_Lazy" title="The Right to Be Lazy">The Right to Be Lazy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Soul_at_Work:_From_Alienation_to_Autonomy" title="The Soul at Work: From Alienation to Autonomy">The Soul at Work: From Alienation to Autonomy</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Communities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/R/antiwork" title="R/antiwork">R/antiwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CrimethInc." title="CrimethInc.">CrimethInc.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situationist_International" title="Situationist International">Situationist International</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div>'

Whether or not the change was made through a Tor exit node (tor_exit_node)

false

Unix timestamp of change (timestamp)

'1700926913'