Donkey: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia

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{{Short description|Domesticated animal used for transportation}}

~~{{wikt|donkey|bray}}~~

{{subspeciesbox

| name = Donkey

| image = Donkey in Clovelly, North Devon, England.jpg

| image_caption = In [[Clovelly]], North Devon

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The '''donkey''' or '''ass''' is a domesticated equine. It derives from the [[African wild ass]], ''Equus africanus'', and may be classified either as a subspecies thereof, '''''Equus africanus asinus''''', or as a separate [[species]], '''''Equus asinus'''''.{{r|cabi|p=1}} It was domesticated in Africa some {{val|5,000|-|7,000}} years ago,{{r|cabi|p=2|rossel|p2=3715|todd}} and has been used mainly as a [[working animal]] since that time.

There are more than 40 million donkeys in the world, mostly in [[underdeveloped]] countries, where they are used principally as [[Working animal|draught]] or [[pack animal|pack animals]]. While working donkeys are often associated with those living at or below subsistence, small numbers of donkeys or asses are kept for breeding or, as pets, and for livestock protection in developed countries.

An adult male donkey is a ''jack'' or ''jackass'', an adult female is a ''jenny'' or ''jennet'',<ref name=oad/><ref name=ncd/><ref name=alberta/> and an immature donkey of either sex is a ''[[foal]]''.<ref name=alberta/> Jacks are often mated with [[horse|female horses (mares)]] to produce ''[[mule|mules]]''; the less common hybrid of a [[stallion|male horse (stallion)]] and jenny is a ''[[hinny]]''.

== Nomenclature ==

Traditionally, the scientific name for the donkey is ''Equus asinus asinus'', on the basis of the [[Priority (nomenclature)|principle of priority]] used for scientific names of animals. However, the [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]] ruled in 2003 that if the domestic and the wild species are considered subspecies of a common species, the scientific name of the wild species has priority, even when that subspecies was described after the domestic subspecies.<ref name=Opinion2007/> This means that the proper scientific name for the donkey is ''Equus africanus asinus'' when it is considered a subspecies and ''Equus asinus'' when it is considered a species.<ref name=wilson/><ref name=Opinion2007/>

At one time, the [[synonym]] ''ass'' was the more common term for the donkey. The first recorded use of ''donkey'' was in either 1784<ref name=fairman/> or 1785.{{r|OED|grose|diaz|page3=239}} While the word ''ass'' has [[cognate]]s in most other [[Indo-European languages]], ''donkey'' is an [[etymology|etymologically]] obscure word for which no credible cognate has been identified. Hypotheses on its derivation include the following:

* perhaps from Spanish for its [[Don (honorific)|don]]-like gravity; the donkey was also known as "the King of Spain's trumpeter".<ref name=grose/>

* perhaps a diminutive of ''[[Dun gene|dun]]'' (dull grayish-brown), a typical donkey colour.<ref name=OED/><ref name=webster/>

* perhaps from the name ''Duncan''.<ref name=OED/><ref name="AHD4donkey"/>

* perhaps of imitative origin.<ref name="AHD4donkey" />

From the 18th century, ''donkey'' gradually replaced ''ass'' and ''jenny'' replaced ''she-ass'', which is now considered archaic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eselin |website=German-English Dictionary |url=http://www.dict.cc/german-english/Eselin.html |access-date=2015-08-25 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923223249/http://www.dict.cc/german-english/Eselin.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The change may have come about through a tendency to avoid pejorative terms in speech and may be comparable to the substitution in North American English of ''[[rooster]]'' for ''cock'', or that of ''[[rabbit]]'' for ''coney'', which was formerly [[Homophone|homophonic]] with ''cunny'' (a variation of the word [[Vagina#Perceptions, symbolism and vulgarity|cunt]]). By the end of the 17th century, changes in pronunciation of both ''ass'' and ''[[Buttocks|arse]]'' had caused them to become homophones in some varieties of English.{{r|diaz|page=239}} Other words used for the ass in English from this time include ''cuddy'' in Scotland, ''neddy'' in southwestern England and ''dicky'' in southeastern England;{{r|diaz|page=239}} [[Moke (slang)|''moke'']] is documented in the 19th century and may be of Welsh or Romani origin.

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==History==

{{~~see~~See also|Evolution of the horse}}▼

[[File:Maler der Grabkammer des Panehsi 001.jpg|thumb|Donkey in an Egyptian painting c. 1298–1235 BC]]

▲{{see also|Evolution of the horse}}

The genus ''Equus'', which includes all extant equines, is believed to have evolved from ''[[Dinohippus]]'', via the intermediate form ''[[Plesippus]]''. One of the oldest species is ''[[Hagerman Horse|Equus simplicidens]]'', described as zebra-like with a donkey-shaped head. The oldest fossil to date is approximately 3.5 million years old, and was located in the US state of Idaho. The genus appears to have spread quickly into the Old World, with the similarly aged ''Equus livenzovensis'' documented from western Europe and Russia.<ref name = "Azzaroli1992">{{cite journal |last=Azzaroli |first=A. |year=1992 |title=Ascent and decline of monodactyl equids: a case for prehistoric overkill |journal=Ann. Zool. Finnici |volume=28 |pages=151–163 |url=http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf28/anz28-151-163.pdf |access-date=2018-08-29 |archive-date=2020-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200329173448/http://www.sekj.org/PDF/anzf28/anz28-151-163.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

Molecular phylogenies indicate the most recent common ancestor of all modern equids (members of the genus ''Equus'') lived ~5.6 (3.9–7.8) mya. Direct paleogenomic sequencing of a 700,000-year-old middle Pleistocene horse metapodial bone from Canada implies a more recent 4.07 Myr before present date for the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) within the range of 4.0 to 4.5 Myr BP.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |title=Recalibrating ''Equus evolution'' using the genome sequence of an early Middle Pleistocene horse |last1=Orlando|first1= L.|last2=Ginolhac|first2= A.|last3=Zhang|first3= G.|last4=Froese|first4= D.|last5=Albrechtsen|first5= A.|last6=Stiller|first6= M.|last7=Schubert|first7= M.|last8=Cappellini|first8= E.|last9=Petersen|first9= B.|s2cid=4318227|journal=Nature|date=4 July 2013 |doi=10.1038/nature12323 |pmid=23803765 |volume=499 |issue=7456 |pages=74–8|display-authors=etal|bibcode=2013Natur.499...74O}}</ref> The oldest divergencies are the Asian hemiones (subgenus ''E. ([[Asinus]])'', including the [[Turkmenian kulan|kulan]], [[onager]], and [[kiang]]), followed by the African zebras (subgenera ''E. ([[Dolichohippus]])'', and ''E. ([[Hippotigris]])''). All other modern forms including the domesticated horse (and many fossil [[Pliocene]] and [[Pleistocene]] forms) belong to the subgenus ''E. ([[Equus (genus)|Equus]])'' which diverged ~4.8 (3.2–6.5) million years ago.<ref name = "WeinstockMolecularPerspective">{{cite journal |last=Weinstock |first=J. |year=2005 |title=Evolution, systematics, and phylogeography of Pleistocene horses in the New World: a molecular perspective |journal=[[PLOS Biology]] |volume=3 |issue=8 |pages=e241 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0030241 |pmid=15974804 |pmc=1159165 |display-authors=etal |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The ancestors of the modern donkey are the [[Nubia]]n and [[Somalia]]n subspecies of [[African wild ass]].{{r|Clut|Albano|rs}} Remains of domestic donkeys dating to the fourth millennium BC have been found in [[Ma'adi]] in Lower Egypt, and it is believed that the domestication of the donkey was accomplished long after the domestication of cattle, sheep and goats in the seventh and eighth millennia BC. Donkeys were probably first domesticated by pastoral people in [[Nubia]], and they supplanted the [[ox]] as the chief pack animal of that culture. The domestication of donkeys served to increase the mobility of pastoral cultures, having the advantage over ruminants of not needing time to [[chewing the cud|chew their cud]], and were vital in the development of long-distance trade across Egypt. In the [[Dynasty IV]] era of Egypt, between 2675 and 2565 BC, wealthy members of society were known to own over 1,000 donkeys, employed in agriculture, as dairy and meat animals and as pack animals.<ref name=IMH/> In 2003, the tomb of either [[Narmer|King Narmer]] or [[Hor-Aha|King Hor-Aha]] (two of the first Egyptian pharaohs) was excavated and the skeletons of ten donkeys were found buried in a manner usually used with high ranking humans. These burials show the importance of donkeys to the early Egyptian state and its ruler.<ref name=fox/>

By the end of the fourth millennium BC, the donkey had spread to Southwest Asia, and the main breeding centre had shifted to [[Mesopotamia]] by 1800 BC. The breeding of large, white riding asses made [[Damascus]] famous,{{Citation_needed|date=April 2016}}, while Syrian breeders developed at least three other breeds, including one preferred by women for its easy [[horse gait|gait]]. The Muscat or Yemen ass was developed in [[Arabia]]. By the second millennium BC, the donkey was brought to Europe, possibly at the same time as [[viticulture]] was introduced, as the donkey is associated with the Syrian god of wine, [[Dionysus]]. Greeks spread both of these to many of their colonies, including those in what are now Italy, France and Spain; Romans dispersed them throughout their empire.<ref name=IMH/>

The first donkeys came to the Americas on ships of the [[Christopher Columbus#Second voyage (1493–1496)|Second Voyage]] of [[Christopher Columbus]], and were landed at [[Hispaniola]] in 1495.<ref name=roots/> The first to reach North America may have been two animals taken to Mexico by [[Juan de Zumárraga]], the first bishop of Mexico, who arrived there on 6 December 1528, while the first donkeys to reach what is now the United States may have crossed the [[Rio Grande]] with [[Juan de Oñate]] in April 1598.<ref name=burro/> From that time on they spread northward, finding use in missions and mines. Donkeys were documented as present in what today is Arizona in 1679. By the [[Gold Rush]] years of the 19th century, the burro was the [[Pack animal|beast of burden]] of choice of early [[Prospecting|prospectors]] in the western United States. ~~With~~By the end of the [[placer mining]] boom, many of them escaped or were abandoned, and a [[Feral organism|feral]] population established itself.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}}

=== Conservation status ===

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[[File:Baudet.jpg|thumb|The [[Baudet du Poitou]] is among the largest breeds of donkey]]

[[File:Niger, Boubon (11), weekly cattle market, donkeys.jpg|thumb|At a livestock market in [[Niger]]]]

In 1997 the number of donkeys in the world was reported to be continuing to grow, as it had steadily done throughout most of history; factors cited as contributing to this were increasing human population, progress in economic development and social stability in some poorer nations, conversion of forests to farm and range land, rising prices of motor vehicles and fuel, and the popularity of donkeys as pets.<ref name=starkey/><ref name=blench2000/>

Since then, the world population of donkeys is reported to be rapidly shrinking, falling from 43.7 million to 43.5 million between 1995 and 2000, and to only 41 million in 2006.<ref name=mon /> The fall in population is pronounced in developed countries; in Europe, the total number of donkeys fell from 3 million in 1944 to just over 1 million in 1994.<ref name=svend5/>

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==Characteristics==

Donkeys vary considerably in size, depending on both breed and environmental conditions, and heights at the [[withers]] range from less than {{convert|90|cm|in}} to approximately {{convert|150|cm|in|abbr=on}}.{{r|cabi|p=6}} Working donkeys in the poorest countries have a life expectancy of 12 to 15 years;<ref name=nsw/> in more prosperous countries, they may have a lifespan of 30 to 50 years.<ref name=alberta/>

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=== Cross on back ===

Most donkeys have dorsal and shoulder stripes, [[primitive markings]] which form a distinctive cross pattern on their backs.<ref name=lookalikecollage>{{Cite web|url=http://www.duncentralstation.com/Look-A-LikeCollages.html |title=Look-A-Like Collages |work=Dun Look-A-Likes |publisher=Dun Central Station |author=Nancy Castle |access-date=2008-06-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012141250/http://www.duncentralstation.com/Look-A-LikeCollages.html |archive-date=October 12, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=About Donkeys |url=https://www.donkeybreedsociety.co.uk/about-donkeys/ |access-date=2022-10-13 |publisher=Donkey Breed Society |ref=About2022}}</ref>

===Breeding===

[[File:Equus asinus Kadzidłowo 001.jpg|thumb|A three-week-old donkey foal]]

A jenny is normally pregnant for about 12 months, though the gestation period varies from 11 to 14 months,<ref name=alberta /><ref name="Sewell">{{Cite web |url=http://www.albertadonkeyandmule.com/pdfs/foaling-out-the-jennet.pdf |title=Sewell, Sybil E. "Foaling out the Donkey Jennet,", ''Alberta Donkey and Mule.com''. Web page accessed March 4, 2008 |access-date=August 25, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825135639/http://www.albertadonkeyandmule.com/pdfs/foaling-out-the-jennet.pdf |archive-date=August 25, 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and usually gives birth to a single foal. Births of twins are rare, though less so than in horses.<ref name=alberta/> About 1.7 percent of donkey pregnancies result in twins; both foals survive in about 14 percent of those.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.ramshornstudio.com/donkeys.htm|title = Twins and Donkeys|access-date = May 4, 2015|website = Rams Horn Studio|archive-date = January 26, 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150126041837/http://www.ramshornstudio.com/donkeys.htm|url-status = live}}</ref> In general jennies have a conception rate that is lower than that of horses (i.e., less than the 60–65% rate for mares).<ref name=alberta />

Although jennies come into heat within 9 or 10 days of giving birth, their fertility remains low, and it is likely the reproductive tract has not returned to normal.<ref name=alberta/> Thus it is usual to wait one or two further [[oestrous]] cycles before rebreeding, unlike the practice with mares. Jennies are usually very protective of their [[foal]]s, and some will not come into estrus while they have a foal at side.<ref name="Rachau">{{Cite web |url=http://www.oregonvos.net/~jrachau/pregnant.htm |title=Rachau, Jeanine A. "Gestation and Foaling of Donkeys" |access-date=2015-08-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412031614/http://www.oregonvos.net/~jrachau/pregnant.htm |archive-date=2009-04-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The time lapse involved in rebreeding, and the length of a jenny's gestation, means that a jenny will have fewer than one foal per year. Because of this and the longer gestation period, donkey breeders do not expect to obtain a foal every year, as horse breeders often do, but may plan for three foals in four years.<ref name=alberta/>

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In developed countries where their use as beasts of burden has disappeared, donkeys are used to sire mules, to guard [[sheep]],<ref name=IMH/><ref name=dohner/> for [[donkey rides]] for children or tourists, and as pets. Donkeys may be pastured or stabled with horses and ponies, and are thought to have a calming effect on nervous horses. If a donkey is introduced to a [[Mare (horse)|mare]] and [[foal]], the foal may turn to the donkey for support after it has been weaned from its mother.<ref name=ypte/>

A few donkeys are milked or raised [[donkey meat|for meat]].<ref name=starkey/> Approximately 3.5 million donkeys and mules are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL|title=FAOSTAT|website=www.fao.org|access-date=2019-10-25|archive-date=2018-10-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181030170521/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QL|url-status=live}}</ref> In Italy, which has the highest consumption of equine meat in Europe and where donkey meat is the main ingredient of several regional dishes, about 1,000 donkeys were slaughtered in 2010, yielding approximately {{convert|100|tonnes}} of meat.<ref name=istat/> [[Asses' milk]] may command good prices: the average price in Italy in 2009 was €15 per litre,<ref name=latte/> and a price of €6 per 100 ml was reported from Croatia in 2008; it is used for soaps and cosmetics as well as dietary purposes. The niche markets for both milk and meat are expanding.<ref name=mon /> In the past, donkey skin was used in the production of [[parchment]].<ref name=mon /> In 2017, the UK based charity [[The Donkey Sanctuary]] estimated that 1.8 million skins were traded every year, but the demand could be as high as 10 million.<ref name=":0">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-41524710|title=Why are donkeys facing their 'biggest ever crisis'?|last=Leithead|first=Alastair|date=7 October 2017|work=BBC News|access-date=7 October 2017|archive-date=7 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007000404/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-41524710|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Henderson and the donkey.jpg|thumb|upright|Lt. Richard Alexander "Dick" Henderson using a donkey to carry a wounded soldier at the [[Battle of Gallipoli]]]]

In China, donkey meat is considered a delicacy with some restaurants specializing in such dishes, and [[Guo Li Zhuang]] restaurants offer the genitals of donkeys in dishes. [[Donkey-hide gelatin]] is produced by soaking and stewing the hide to make a traditional Chinese medicine product. [[Donkey-hide gelatin|Ejiao]], the gelatine produced by boiling donkey skins, can sell for up to $388 per ~~kilo~~kilogram, at October 2017 prices.<ref>{{cite book |last=Köhle|first=Natalie|chapter=Feasting on Donkey Skin|date=2018-04-09|title=China Story Yearbook 2017: Prosperity|publisher=ANU Press|doi=10.22459/csy.04.2018.05b|isbn=978-1-76046-202-4|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===In warfare===

During World War I [[John Simpson Kirkpatrick]], a British stretcher bearer serving with the [[Australian and New Zealand Army Corps]], and Richard Alexander "Dick" Henderson of the [[New Zealand Medical Corps]] used donkeys to rescue wounded soldiers from the battlefield at [[Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli]].<ref name=anzac/><ref name=nzh/>

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==Care==

===Shoeing===

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Donkey hooves are more elastic than those of horses, and do not naturally wear down as fast. Regular clipping may be required; neglect can lead to permanent damage.<ref name=alberta/> Working donkeys may need to be shod. Donkey shoes are similar to [[horseshoe]]s, but usually smaller and without toe-clips.

===Nutrition===

[[File:Местные жители у берега Айдаркуль.jpg|thumb|Local man watching his donkey graze near the [[Aydar Lake|Aidarkul Lake]] an artificial lake in Uzbekistan. Donkeys are particularly well suited for grazing in [[Drylands|dryland environments]].]]

In their native arid and semi-arid climates, donkeys spend more than half of each day foraging and feeding, often on poor quality scrub.<ref name="svend2" /> The donkey has a tough [[digestive system]] in which roughage is efficiently broken down by [[hind gut fermentation]], microbial action in the [[caecum]] and [[large intestine]].<ref name="svend2" /> While there is no marked structural difference between the gastro-intestinal tract of a donkey and that of a horse, the digestion of the donkey is more efficient. It needs less food than a horse or pony of comparable height and weight,<ref name="smith2008" /> approximately 1.5 percent of body weight per day in dry matter,<ref name="Wood2005" /> compared to the 2–2.5 percent consumption rate possible for a horse.<ref name="Penn">[http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uc099.pdf Hall, Marvin H. and Patricia M. Comerford. "Pasture and Hay for Horses – Argonomy facts 32,", 1992 University of Pennsylvania, Cooperative Extension Service.]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010200000/http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/uc099.pdf |date=2017-10-10 }} Web site accessed February 14, 2007.</ref> Donkeys are also less prone to [[colic]].<ref name="svendsen" /> The reasons for this difference are not fully understood; the donkey may have different [[intestinal flora]] to the horse, or a longer gut retention time.<ref name="smith" />

Donkeys obtain most of their energy from [[Dietary fiber|structural carbohydrates]]. Some suggest that a donkey needs to be fed only [[straw]] (preferably barley straw), supplemented with controlled grazing in the summer or [[hay]] in the winter,<ref name=sanct/> to get all the energy, protein, fat and vitamins it requires; others recommend some grain to be fed, particularly to working animals,<ref name=alberta/> and others advise against feeding straw.<ref name=blm/> They do best when allowed to consume small amounts of food over long periods. They can meet their nutritional needs on 6 to 7 hours of grazing per day on average dryland pasture that is not stressed by drought. If they are worked long hours or do not have access to pasture, they require hay or a similar dried forage, with no more than a 1:4 ratio of legumes to grass. They also require salt and mineral supplements, and access to clean, fresh water.<ref>Aganga, A.A., ''et al.'' [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928063807/http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd12/2/agan122.htm "Feeding donkeys"] ''Livestock Research for Rural Development'' 12 (2) 2000. Department of Animal Science and Production, Botswana College of Agriculture. Web site accessed July 4, 2009.</ref> In temperate climates the forage available is often too abundant and too rich; over-feeding may cause weight gain and obesity, and lead to metabolic disorders such as founder ([[laminitis]]<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20071119104524/http://www.dengie.com/pages/feeding-horses/nutritional-advice/feeding-your-donkey.php "Feeding Your Donkey"] Web site accessed July 4, 2009.</ref>) and [[hyperlipaemia]],<ref name=sanct/> or to [[gastric ulcers]].<ref name=Burden2009/>

Throughout the world, working donkeys are associated with the very poor, with those living at or below subsistence level.<ref name=aluja/> Few receive adequate food, and in general donkeys throughout the [[Third World]] are under-nourished and over-worked.<ref name=svend4/>

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== Feral populations ==

[[File:Wild Burros.jpg|thumb|[[Feral]] burros in [[Red Rock Canyon National Conservation Area|Red Rock Canyon]]]]

In some areas domestic donkeys have returned to the wild and established [[feral]] populations such as those of the burro of North America and the [[Asinara donkey]] of [[Sardinia]], Italy, both of which have protected status.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} Feral donkeys can also cause problems, notably in environments that have evolved free of any form of [[equid]], such as Hawaii.<ref name=feral/> In Australia, where there may be 5 million [[Feral donkeys in Australia|feral donkeys]],<ref name=roots/> they are regarded as an invasive pest and have a serious impact on the environment. They may compete with livestock and native animals for resources, spread weeds and diseases, foul or damage watering holes and cause erosion.<ref name=aus/>

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The earliest documented donkey hybrid was the [[kunga (equid)|kunga]], which was used as a draft animal in the Syrian and Mesopotamian kingdoms of the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE. A cross between a captive male [[Syrian wild ass]] and a female domesticated donkey (jenny), they represent the earliest known example of human-directed animal hybridization. They were produced at a breeding center at Nagar (modern [[Tell Brak]]) and were sold or given as gifts throughout the region, where they became significant status symbols, pulling battle wagons and the chariots of kings, and also being sacrificed to bury with high-status people. They fell out of favor following the introduction of the domestic horse and its donkey hybrid, the [[mule]], into the region at the end of the 3rd millennium BCE.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=E. Andrew |last1=Bennett |first2=Jill |last2=Weber |first3=Wejden |last3=Bendhafer |first4=Sophie |last4=Chaplot |first5=Joris |last5=Peters |first6=Glenn M. |last6=Schwartz |first7=Thierry |last7=Grange |first8=Eva-Maria |last8=Geigl |title=The genetic identity of the earliest human-made hybrid animals, the kungas of Syro-Mesopotamia |journal=Science Advances |year=2022 |volume=8 |number=2 |pages=eabm0218 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abm0218|pmid=35030024 |pmc=8759742 |bibcode=2022SciA....8..218B |s2cid=245963400 }}</ref>

A male donkey (jack) crossed with a female horse produces a [[mule]], while a male horse crossed with a jenny produces a [[hinny]]. ~~Horse-donkey~~Horse–donkey [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] are almost always [[infertility|sterile]] because of a failure of their developing gametes to complete meiosis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=X. C. |last2=Barringer |first2=B. C. |last3=Barbash |first3=D. A. |title=The pachytene checkpoint and its relationship to evolutionary patterns of polyploidization and hybrid sterility |journal=Heredity |volume=102 |pages=24–30 |year=2009 |issue=1 |doi=10.1038/hdy.2008.84 |pmid=18766201 |s2cid=2176510 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The lower progesterone production of the jenny may also lead to early [[embryonic loss]]. In addition, there are reasons not directly related to reproductive biology. Due to different [[mating]] behavior, jacks are often more willing to cover mares than stallions are to breed jennies. Further, mares are usually larger than jennies and thus have more room for the ensuing foal to grow in the womb, resulting in a larger animal at birth. It is commonly believed that mules are more easily handled and also physically stronger than hinnies, making them more desirable for breeders to produce.{{Citation needed|reason=to make this statement, one needs data indicating the greater prevalence of mules|date=August 2009}}

The offspring of a [[zebra]]~~-donkey~~–donkey cross is called a zonkey, [[zebroid]], zebrass, or zedonk;<ref name=zorse/> ''zebra mule'' is an older term, but still used in some regions today. The foregoing terms generally refer to hybrids produced by breeding a male zebra to a female donkey. ''Zebra hinny, zebret'' and ''zebrinny'' all refer to the cross of a female zebra with a male donkey. Zebrinnies are rarer than zedonkies because female zebras in captivity are most valuable when used to produce full-blooded zebras.<ref name=zedonk/> There are not enough female zebras breeding in captivity to spare them for hybridizing; there is no such limitation on the number of female donkeys breeding.

==See also==

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== References ==

~~{{commonscat}}~~

{{Reflist|45em|refs=

<ref name=abc>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/creaturefeatures/facts/donkeys.htm |title=ABC.net.au |publisher=ABC.net.au |access-date=September 1, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812031458/http://www.abc.net.au/creaturefeatures/facts/donkeys.htm |archive-date=2010-08-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

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<ref name=ds2006>{{cite web |url=http://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ |title=Home |publisher=The Donkey Sanctuary |access-date=June 1, 2011 |archive-date=May 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210526100448/https://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name=evans>{{cite journal|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6194874.ece|title=Donkey 'suicide' bombing is latest tactic against patrols|date=April 30, 2009|author=Evans, Michael|journal=The Times|access-date=July 1, 2011|archive-date=May 19, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090519061858/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/article6194874.ece|url-status=~~live~~dead}}</ref>

<ref name=fairman>{{cite journal|last=Fairman|first=Tony|year=1994|title=How the ass became a donkey|journal=English Today|volume=10|issue=4|page=32|issn=0266-0784|doi=10.1017/S0266078400007860|s2cid=144914684 }}, cited in: Isabel de la Cruz Cabanillas, Cristina Tejedor Martínez (2002). "The horse family: on the evolution of the field and its metaphorization process", in Javier E. Díaz Vera, [https://books.google.com/books?id=jxCQ4XMjBPIC ''A changing world of words: Studies in English historical lexicography, lexicology and semantics''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224010723/https://books.google.com/books?id=jxCQ4XMjBPIC |date=2016-12-24 }}. Amsterdam: Rodopi. {{ISBN|978-90-420-1330-8}} p.239</ref>

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<ref name=sanct>[http://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/files/donkeys/FeedingDonkey_0.pdf What should you feed your donkeys? ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118063740/http://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/files/donkeys/FeedingDonkey_0.pdf |date=2011-11-18 }} The Donkey Sanctuary, 2010. Retrieved February 2012.</ref>

<ref name=smith>{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = DG | last2 = Pearson | first2 = RA | s2cid = 20777559 | title = A review of the factors affecting the survival of donkeys in semi-arid regions of sub-Saharan Africa | journal = Trop Anim Health Prod | volume = 37 ~~Suppl 1~~ | pages = 1–19 | date = November 2005 | issue = Suppl 1 | pmid = 16335068 | doi = 10.1007/s11250-005-9002-5 | url = https://napier-surface.worktribe.com/256375/1/Survival_strategies_of_donkeys_in_semi_1.pdf | access-date = 2019-08-29 | archive-date = 2020-07-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200729234750/https://napier-surface.worktribe.com/256375/1/Survival_strategies_of_donkeys_in_semi_1.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>

<ref name=smith2008>Smith, David; Stephanie Wood (2008) "Donkey Nutrition", in Elisabeth Svendsen; James Duncan; David Hadrill ''The Professional Handbook of the Donkey'', 4th edition. Yatesbury: Whittet Books. p.10.</ref>

<ref name=starkey>Paul Starkey, Malcolm Starkey (1997). "[https://web.archive.org/web/20030915140301/http://www.atnesa.org/donkeys/donkeys-starkey-populations.pdf Regional and ~~World~~world trends in ~~Donkey~~donkey ~~Populations~~populations]". Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa. Archived 15 September 2003.</ref>

<ref name=svendsen>Elisabeth Svendsen (editor) (1997) ''The Professional Handbook of the Donkey'', 3rd edition. London: Whittet Books. {{ISBN|978-1-873580-37-0}}. p.208.</ref>

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}}

== External links ==

* {{Wiktionary inline|donkey}}

* {{Wiktionary inline|bray}}

* {{Commonscatinline}}

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[[Category:Donkeys| ]]

[[Category:African wild ass]]▼

[[Category:Mammals as pets]]

[[Category:Mammals described in 1758]]

[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]▼

▲[[Category:African wild ass]]

[[Category:Pack animals]]

[[Category:Subspecies]]

▲[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]