Song dynasty: Difference between revisions - Wikipedia
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{{distinguish|Song (state)|Liu Song dynasty}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name = {{nobold|{{langlangn|zh|宋|nocat=true}}}}
| conventional_long_name = Song<!-- See the talk page before editing please. -->
| common_name =
| era = Postclassical
| status = Empire
| status_text =
| government_type = [[Monarchy]]
| life_span = 960–1279
| p1 = Later Zhou<!-- please do not put "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period" as the Former Country Infobox is used for showing the succession of "country" not a period -->
| image_p1 =
| p2 = Jingnan
| image_p2 =
| p3 = Later Shu
| image_p3 =
| p4 = Southern Han
| image_p4 =
| p5 = Southern Tang
| image_p5 =
| p6 = Wuyue
| image_p6 =
| p7 = Northern Han
| image_p7 =
| s1 = Jin dynasty (1115–1234){{!}}Jin dynasty
| s2 = Yuan dynasty
| image_s1 =
| flag_s1 =
| event_start = Established
| date_start = 4 February
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| date_end = 19 March
| year_end = 1279
| image_flag =
| flag =
| flag_type =
| image_map = China - Song Dynasty-en.svg
| image_map_alt = A map showing the territory of the Song, Liao, and Western Xia dynasties. The Song occupies the east half of what constitutes the territory of the modern China, except for the northernmost areas (modern Inner Mongolia and above). Western Xia occupies a small strip of land surrounding a river in what is now Inner Mongolia and Ningxia, and the Liao occupy a large section of what is today north-east China.
| image_map_caption = The Song dynasty at its greatest extent in 1111
| capital = {{ubl|{{nowrap|[[Kaifeng|Bianjing]] (960–1127)}}|[[Shangqiu|Yingtian]] (1127–1128)|{{nowrap|[[Yangzhou]] (1128–1129)}}|[[Nanjing|Jiangning]] (1129–1138)|[[Lin'an Prefecture|Lin'an]] (1129 &, 1138–1276)}}
| common_languages = [[Middle Chinese]]
| religion = [[Chinese Buddhism]], [[Taoism]], [[Confucianism]], [[Chinese folk religion]], [[Islam in China|Islam]], [[Church of the East in China|Chinese Nestorian Christianity]]
| currency = [[Jiaozi (currency)|Jiaozi]], [[Guanzi (currency)|Guanzi]], [[Huizi (currency)|Huizi]], [[Chinese cash (currency unit)|Chinese cash]], [[Chinese coin]], [[copper coins]], etc.
| leader1 = [[Emperor Taizu of Song|Emperor Taizu]] (founder of Northern Song)
| leader2 = [[Emperor Gaozong of Song|Emperor Gaozong]] (founder of Southern Song)
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| year_leader3 = 1278–1279
| title_leader = [[List of emperors of the Song dynasty|Emperor]]
| deputy1 =
| deputy2 =
| deputy3 =
| deputy4 =
| deputy5 =
| deputy6 =
| deputy7 =
| deputy8 =
| deputy9 =
| year_deputy1 =
| year_deputy2 =
| year_deputy3 =
| year_deputy4 =
| year_deputy5 =
| year_deputy6 =
| year_deputy7 =
| year_deputy8 =
| year_deputy9 =
| title_deputy =
| legislature =
| stat_year1 = 958 est.
| stat_area1 = 800000
| ref_area1 = {{sfn|Taagepera|1997|p=493}}
| stat_pop1 =
| ref_pop1 =
| stat_year2 = 980 est.
| stat_area2 = 3100000
| ref_area2 = {{sfn|Taagepera|1997|p=493}}
| stat_pop2 =
| ref_pop2 =
| stat_year3 = 1127 est.
| stat_area3 = 2100000
| ref_area3 = {{sfn|Taagepera|1997|p=493}}
| stat_pop3 =
| ref_pop3 =
| stat_year4 = 1204 est.
| stat_area4 = 1800000
| ref_area4 = {{sfn|Taagepera|1997|p=493}}
| stat_pop4 =
| ref_pop4 =
| stat_year5 = 1120s
| stat_area5 =
| stat_pop5 = {{ubl|'''Northern''': 80–110,000,000 million{{sfn|Chaffee|2015|pp=29, 327}}|'''Southern''': 65,000,000 million{{sfn|Chaffee|2015|p=625}}}}
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} 26.5 taels<ref>{{cite web |last1=Broadberry |first1=Stephen |title=China, Europe and the Great Divergence: A study in historical national accounting, 980–1850 |url=https://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Broadberry.pdf |publisher=Economic History Association |access-date=15 August 2020 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109144034/https://eh.net/eha/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Broadberry.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| today = [[China|People's Republic of China]]<br>[[Taiwan|Republic of China]] ([[Penghu]])
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
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| c = 宋朝
| p = Sòng cháo
| w = {{tone superscripttonesup|Sung4 ch'ao2}}
| bpmf = ㄙㄨㄥˋ ㄔㄠˊ
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|s|ong|4|-|ch|ao|2}}
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| tp = Sòng cháo
}}
{{History of China |BC = 1 }}
The '''Song dynasty''' ({{IPAc-en|s|ʊ|ŋ}}) was an [[Dynasties of China|imperial dynasty of China]] that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by [[Emperor Taizu of Song]], who usurped the throne of the [[Later Zhou|Later Zhou]] dynasty]] and went on to conquer the rest of the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period#Ten Kingdoms|Ten Kingdoms]], ending the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]]. The Song often came into conflict with the contemporaneous [[Liao dynasty|Liao]], [[Western Xia]] and [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] dynasties in northern China. After retreating to southern China following attacks by the Jin dynasty, the Song was eventually conquered by the [[Mongols|Mongol]]-led [[Yuan dynasty]].
The dynasty is divided into [[History of the Song dynasty|twodynasty's periodshistory]]: Northernis Songdivided andinto Southerntwo Song.periods: Duringduring the Northern Song ({{zh zhi|c = 北宋}}; 960–1127), the capital was in the northern city of Bianjing (now [[Kaifeng]]) and the dynasty controlled most of what is now [[Eastern China]]. The [[#Southern Song, 1127–1279|Southern Song]] ({{zh zhi|c = 南宋}}; 1127–1279) refers tocomprise the period afterfollowing the Songloss lostof control ofover itsthe northern half of Song territory to the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]-led [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] in the [[Jin–Song Wars]]. At that time, the Song court retreated south of the [[Yangtze]] and established its capital at [[Lin'an Prefecture|Lin'an]] (now [[Hangzhou]]). Although the Song dynasty had lost control of the traditional Chinese heartlands around the [[Yellow River]], the Southern Song Empire contained a large population and productive agricultural land, sustaining a robust economy. In 1234, the Jin dynasty was [[Mongol invasion of China|conquered by the Mongols]], who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. [[Möngke Khan]], the fourth [[Khagan|Great Khan]] of the [[Mongol Empire]], died in 1259 while besieging the mountain castle [[Diaoyucheng]], in [[Chongqing]]. His younger brother [[Kublai Khan]] was proclaimed the new Great Khan and in 1271 founded the Yuan dynasty.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=115}} After two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khan's armies [[Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty|conquered the Song dynasty]] in 1279 after defeating the Southern Song in the [[Battle of Yamen]], and reunited China under the Yuan dynasty.{{sfn|Rossabi|1988|p=76}}
[[Science and technology of the Song dynasty|Technology]], science, philosophy, mathematics, and [[Architecture of the Song dynasty|engineering]] flourished during the Song era. The Song dynasty was the first in world history to issue [[banknote]]s or true paper money and the first Chinese government to establish [[Military history of the Song dynasty#Navy|a permanent standing navy]]. This dynasty saw the first surviving records of the chemical formula for [[gunpowder]], the invention of [[Gunpowder weapons in the Song dynasty|gunpowder weapons]] such as [[fire arrow]]s, [[bomb]]s, and the [[fire lance]]. It also saw the first discernment of [[true north]] using a [[compass]], first recorded description of the [[pound lock]], and improved designs of [[astronomical clock]]s. Economically, the Song dynasty was unparalleled with a [[gross domestic product]] three times larger than that of Europe during the 12th century.{{sfn|Chaffee|2015|p=435}}{{sfn|Liu|2015|p=294}} China's population doubled in size between the 10th and 11th centuries. This growth was made possible by expanded [[rice cultivation]], use of early-ripening rice from Southeast and South Asia, and production of widespread food surpluses.{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=156}}{{sfn|Brook|1998|p=96}} The Northern Song census recorded 20 million households, double that of the [[Han dynasty|Han]] and [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] dynasties. It is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of 90 million people,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Durand|first=John|dateyear=1960|title=The Population Statistics of China, A.D. 2–1953|journal=Population Studies|volume= 13|issue=3|pages=209–256|doi=10.2307/2172247 |jstor=2172247}}</ref> and 200 million by the time of the [[Ming dynasty]].{{sfn|Veeck|Pannell|Smith|Huang|2007|pp=103–104}} This dramatic increase of population fomented an [[Economy of the Song dynasty|economic revolution in pre-modern China]].
The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and emergence of a national economy led to the gradual withdrawal of the central government from [[Economic interventionism|direct involvement in economic affairs]]. The [[Chinese gentry|lower gentry]] assumed a larger role in local administration and affairs. [[Society of the Song dynasty|Social life during the Song]] was vibrant. Citizens gathered to [[Culture of the Song dynasty|view and trade precious artworks]], the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the rapid expansion of [[woodblock printing]] and the 11th-century invention of [[movable type]] printing. Philosophers such as [[Cheng Yi (philosopher)|Cheng Yi]] and [[Zhu Xi]] reinvigorated [[Confucianism]] with new commentary, infused with [[Buddhist]] ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that established the doctrine of [[Neo-Confucianism]]. Although [[Imperial examination|civil service examinations]] had existed since the [[Sui dynasty]], they became much more prominent in the Song period. Officials gaining power through [[imperial examination]] led to a shift from a [[Jiedushi|military-aristocratic]] elite to a [[scholar-official|scholar-bureaucratic]] elite.
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=== Northern Song, 960–1127 ===
[[File: Song Taizu.jpg|alt=Painted image of a portly man sitting in a red throne-chair with dragon-head decorations, wearing white silk robes, black shoes, and a black hat, and sporting a black mustache and goatee.|thumb|left|upright|Court portrait of [[Emperor Taizu of Song]] ({{r.|960|976}}960–976), a court portrait painting]]▼
After [[Chenqiao Mutiny|usurping the throne]] of the [[Later Zhou dynasty]], Emperor Taizu of Song ({{r.|960|976}} 960–976) spent sixteen years [[History of the Song dynasty|conquering the rest]] of [[China proper]], reuniting much of the territory that had once belonged to the Han and Tang empires and ending the upheaval of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.{{sfn|Lorge|2015|pp=4–5}} In [[Kaifeng]], he established a strong central government over the empire. The establishment of this capital marked the start of the '''Northern Song'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> period. He ensured administrative stability by promoting the [[Imperial examination|civil service examination]] system of drafting state [[bureaucrat]]s by skill and merit (instead of [[Aristocracy (class)|aristocrat]]ic or military position) and promoted projects that ensured efficiency in communication throughout the empire. In one such project, [[Chinese cartography|cartographers]] created detailed maps of each province and city that were then collected in a large [[atlas]].{{sfn|Needham|1986b|p=518}} Emperor Taizu also promoted groundbreaking scientific and technological innovations by supporting works like the [[astronomical clock]] tower designed and built by the engineer [[Zhang Sixun]].{{sfn|Needham|1986c|pp=469–471}}▼
▲[[File: Song Taizu.jpg|alt=Painted image of a portly man sitting in a red throne-chair with dragon-head decorations, wearing white silk robes, black shoes, and a black hat, and sporting a black mustache and goatee.|thumb|left|upright|[[Emperor Taizu of Song]] ({{r.}}960–976), a court portrait painting]]
▲After [[Chenqiao Mutiny|usurping the throne]] of the [[Later Zhou dynasty]], Emperor Taizu of Song ({{r.}} 960–976) spent sixteen years [[History of the Song dynasty|conquering the rest]] of [[China proper]], reuniting much of the territory that had once belonged to the Han and Tang empires and ending the upheaval of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.{{sfn|Lorge|2015|pp=4–5}} In [[Kaifeng]], he established a strong central government over the empire. The establishment of this capital marked the start of the '''Northern Song'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> period. He ensured administrative stability by promoting the [[Imperial examination|civil service examination]] system of drafting state [[bureaucrat]]s by skill and merit (instead of [[Aristocracy (class)|aristocrat]]ic or military position) and promoted projects that ensured efficiency in communication throughout the empire. In one such project, [[Chinese cartography|cartographers]] created detailed maps of each province and city that were then collected in a large [[atlas]].{{sfn|Needham|1986b|p=518}} Emperor Taizu also promoted groundbreaking scientific and technological innovations by supporting works like the [[astronomical clock]] tower designed and built by the engineer [[Zhang Sixun]].{{sfn|Needham|1986c|pp=469–471}}
The Song court maintained diplomatic relations with [[Chola dynasty|Chola India]], the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] of Egypt, [[Srivijaya]], the [[Kara-Khanid Khanate]] in [[Central Asia]], the [[Goryeo]] Kingdom in Korea, and other countries that were also trade partners with [[Heian period|Japan]].{{sfn|Ebrey|1999|p=138}}{{sfn|Hall|1985|p=23}}{{sfn|Sastri|1984|pp=173, 316}}{{sfn|Shen|1996|p=158}}{{sfn|Brose|2008|p=258}} [[History of Song (Yuan dynasty)|Chinese records]] even mention [[Sino-Roman relations|an embassy]] from the ruler of "Fu lin" (拂菻, i.e. the [[Byzantine Empire]]), [[Michael VII Doukas]], and its arrival in 1081.<ref name="halsall 2000">{{cite web|orig-year=1998|date=2000|author=Paul Halsall|editor=Jerome S. Arkenberg|url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/eastasia/romchin1.html |title=East Asian History Sourcebook: Chinese Accounts of Rome, Byzantium and the Middle East, c. 91 B.C.E. – 1643 C.E. |publisher=[[Fordham University]]|website=Fordham.edu|access-date=2016-09-14}}</ref> However, China's closest neighbouring states had the greatest impact on its domestic and foreign policy. From its inception under Taizu, the Song dynasty alternated between warfare and diplomacy with the ethnic [[Khitan people|Khitans]] of the [[Liao dynasty]] in the northeast and with the [[Tangut people|Tanguts]] of the [[Western Xia]] in the northwest. The Song dynasty used military force in an attempt to quell the Liao dynasty and to recapture the [[Sixteen Prefectures]], a territory under Khitan control since 938 that was traditionally considered to be part of [[China proper]] (Most parts of today's [[Beijing]] and [[Tianjin]]).{{sfn|Mote|1999|p=69}} Song forces were repulsed by the Liao forces, who engaged in aggressive yearly campaigns into Northern Song territory until 1005, when the signing of the [[Shanyuan Treaty]] ended these northern border clashes. The Song were forced to provide tribute to the Khitans, although this did little damage to the Song economy since the Khitans were economically dependent upon importing massive amounts of goods from the Song.{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=154}} More significantly, the Song state recognized the Liao state as its diplomatic equal.{{sfn|Mote|1999|pp=70–71}} The Song created an extensive defensive forest along the Song-Liao border to thwart potential Khitan cavalry attacks.{{sfn|Chen|2018}}
[[File:Taizong of Song.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|alt=A man in heavy white robes, wearing a black hat with long horizontal protrusions coming from the bottom of the hat.|A portraitPortrait of [[Emperor Taizong of Song]] ({{r.}} 976–997)]]
The Song dynasty managed to win several military victories over the Tanguts in the early 11th century, culminating in a campaign led by the polymath scientist, general, and statesman [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095).{{sfn|Sivin|1995|p=8}} However, this campaign was ultimately a failure due to a rival military officer of Shen disobeying direct orders, and the territory gained from the Western Xia was eventually lost.{{sfn|Sivin|1995|p=9}} The Song fought against the Vietnamese kingdom of [[Đại Việt]] twice, the first conflict in [[Song–Vietnamese war (981)|981]] and later a [[Lý–Song War|significant war]] from 1075 to 1077 over a border dispute and the Song's severing of commercial relations with Đại Việt.{{sfn|Anderson|2008|p=207}} After the Vietnamese forces inflicted heavy damages in a raid on [[Guangxi]], the Song commander Guo Kui (1022–1088) penetrated as far as Thăng Long (modern [[Hanoi]]).{{sfn|Anderson|2008|p=208}} Heavy losses on both sides prompted the Vietnamese commander Thường Kiệt (1019–1105) to make peace overtures, allowing both sides to withdraw from the war effort; captured territories held by both Song and Vietnamese were mutually exchanged in 1082, along with prisoners of war.{{sfn|Anderson|2008|pp=208–209}}
[[File:Song-Bodhisattva1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|A Song-era wooden Bodhisattva from the Song dynasty (960–1279)]]
During the 11th century, political rivalries divided members of the court due to the ministers' differing approaches, opinions, and policies regarding the handling of the Song's complex society and thriving economy. The idealist [[Chancellor (China)|Chancellor]], [[Fan Zhongyan]] (989–1052), was the first to receive a heated political backlash when he attempted to institute the [[Qingli Reforms]], which included measures such as improving the recruitment system of officials, increasing the salaries for minor officials, and establishing sponsorship programs to allow a wider range of people to be well educated and eligible for state service.{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=163}}
After Fan was forced to step down from his office, [[Wang Anshi]] (1021–1086) became Chancellor of the imperial court. With the backing of [[Emperor Shenzong of Song|Emperor Shenzong]] (1067–1085), Wang Anshi severely criticized the educational system and state bureaucracy. Seeking to resolve what he saw as state corruption and negligence, Wang implemented a series of reforms called the [[New Policies (Song dynasty)|New Policies]]. These involved [[land value tax]] reform, the establishment of several government [[monopoly|monopolies]], the support of local [[militia]]smilitias, and the creation of higher standards for the Imperial examination to make it more practical for men skilled in statecraft to pass.{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=164}}
The reforms created political factions in the court. Wang Anshi's "New Policies Group" (''Xin Fa''), also known as the "Reformers", were opposed by the ministers in the "Conservative" faction led by the historian and Chancellor [[Sima Guang]] (1019–1086).{{sfn|Sivin|1995|pp=3–4}} As one faction supplanted another in the majority position of the court ministers, it would demote rival officials and exile them to govern remote frontier regions of the empire.{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=164}} One of the prominent victims of the political rivalry, the famous poet and statesman [[Su Shi]] (1037–1101), was jailed and eventually exiled for criticizing Wang's reforms.{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=164}}
[[File:Song-Palace1.jpg|thumb|Flock''Auspicious ofCranes'', Cranea overpainting of the Song Palaceroyal paintingpalace by [[Emperor Huizong of Song|Emperor Huizong]]]]
The continual alternation between reform and conservatism had effectively weakened the dynasty. This decline can also be attributed to [[Cai Jing]] (1047–1126), who was appointed by [[Emperor Zhezong]] (1085–1100) and who remained in power until 1125. He revived the New Policies and pursued political opponents, tolerated corruption and encouraged [[Emperor Huizong of Song|Emperor Huizong]] (1100–1126) to neglect his duties to focus on artistic pursuits. Later, a peasant rebellion broke out in Zhejiang and Fujian, headed by [[Fang La]] in 1120. The rebellion may have been caused by an increasing tax burden, the concentration of landownership and oppressive government measures.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roberts |first=J. A. G. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofchina0000robe_l0n0/page/148/mode/2up |title=A History of China |publisher=St Martin's Press |year=1996 |location=New York |pagespage=148 |isbn=9780312163341 }}</ref>
While the central Song court remained politically divided and focused upon its internal affairs, alarming new events to the north in the Liao state finally came to its attention. The [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]], a subject tribe of the Liao, rebelled against them and formed their own state, the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)]].{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=165}} The Song official [[Tong Guan]] (1054–1126) advised Emperor Huizong to form an alliance with the Jurchens, and the joint military campaign under this [[Alliance Conducted at Sea]] toppled and completely conquered the Liao dynasty by 1125. During the joint attack, the Song's northern expedition army removed the defensive forest along the Song-Liao border.{{sfn|Chen|2018}}
[[Image:Liao Dynasty - Guan Yin statue.jpg|alt=A wooden carving of a sitting Buddhist figure in loose fitting, painted robes.|thumb|left|upright=0.7|A Liao dynasty (907–1125) [[polychrome]] wood-carved [[statue]] of [[Guan YinGuanyin]], [[Shanxi Province]], China, (907–1125)]]
However, the poor performance and military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchens, who immediately broke the alliance, beginning the [[Jin–Song Wars]] of 1125 and 1127. Because of the removal of the previous defensive forest, the Jin army marched quickly across the North China Plain to Kaifeng.{{sfn|Chen|2018}} In the [[Jingkang Incident]] during the latter invasion, the Jurchens captured not only the capital, but the retired Emperor Huizong, his successor [[Emperor Qinzong of Song|Emperor Qinzong]], and most of the Imperial court.{{sfn|Ebrey|Walthall|Palais|2006|p=165}}
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Although weakened and pushed south beyond the [[Huai River]], the '''Southern Song'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> found new ways to bolster its strong economy and defend itself against the Jin dynasty. It had able military officers such as [[Yue Fei]] and [[Han Shizhong]]. The government sponsored massive [[shipbuilding]] and [[harbor]] improvement projects, and the construction of [[beacon]]s and seaport [[warehouse]]s to support maritime trade abroad, including at the major international [[seaport]]s, such as [[Quanzhou]], [[Guangzhou]], and [[Xiamen]], that were sustaining China's commerce.{{sfn|Wang|2000|p=14}}{{sfn|Sivin|1995|p=5}}{{sfn|Paludan|1998|p=136}}
To protect and support the multitude of ships sailing for maritime interests into the waters of the [[East China Sea]] and [[Yellow Sea]] (to [[Korea]] and [[Japan]]), [[Southeast Asia]], the [[Indian Ocean]], and the [[Red Sea]], it was necessary to establish an official standing [[navy]].{{sfn|Shen|1996|pp=159–161}} The Song dynasty therefore established China's first permanent navy in 1132,{{sfn|Paludan|1998|p=136}} with a headquarters at [[Dinghai]].{{sfn|Needham|1986d|p=476}} With a permanent navy, the Song were prepared to face the naval forces of the Jin on the Yangtze River in 1161, in the [[Battle of Tangdao]] and the [[Battle of Caishi]]. During these battles the Song navy employed swift [[Paddle wheel ship#East Asia|paddle wheel driven]] naval vessels armed with [[trebuchet|traction trebuchet catapults]] aboard the decks that launched gunpowder [[bomb]]s.{{sfn|Needham|1986d|p=476}} Although the Jin forces commanded by [[Wanyan Liang|Wanyan Liang]] (the Prince of Hailing)]] boasted 70,000 men on 600 warships, and the Song forces only 3,000 men on 120 warships,{{sfn|Levathes|1994|pp=43–47}} the Song dynasty forces were victorious in both battles due to the destructive power of the bombs and the rapid assaults by [[Qianli chuan|paddlewheel ships]].{{sfn|Needham|1986a|p=134}} The strength of the navy was heavily emphasized following these victories. A century after the navy was founded it had grown in size to 52,000 fighting marines.{{sfn|Needham|1986d|p=476}}
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120903075459/http://www.bcps.org/offices/lis/models/chinahist/song.html Song dynasty at bcps.org]
* [http://www.art-and-archaeology.com/timelines/china/song.html Song and Liao artwork]
* [http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-sung.cfm Song dynasty art with video commentary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907063837/http://www.artsmia.org/art-of-asia/history/dynasty-sung.cfm |date=2008-09-07 }}
* [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/11383/ The Newly Compiled Overall Geographical Survey]