Manorina melanotis — Black-eared Miner

Commonwealth of Australia (2000). Declaration under s178, s181, and s183 of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 - List of threatened species, List of threatened ecological communities and List of threatening processes. F2005B02653. Canberra: Federal Register of Legislative Instruments. https://www.legislation.gov.au/F2005B02653/asmade/text. In effect under the EPBC Act from 16-Jul-2000.

Commonwealth of Australia (2000b). List of Migratory Species (13/07/2000). F2007B00750. Canberra: Federal Register of Legislative Instruments. https://www.legislation.gov.au/F2007B00750/asmade/text.

Department of the Environment and Heritage (2006qb). Manorina melanotis in Species Profile and Threats (SPRAT) database. Canberra: DEH. Available from: http://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=449.

Fitzherbert, K., J. McLaughlin & D. Baker-Gabb (2003). Flora and Fauna Guarantee Action Statement 26-Black-eared Miner Manorina melanotis. Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment. Available from: http://www.depi.vic.gov.au/environment-and-wildlife/threatened-species-and-communities/flora-and-fauna-guarantee-act-1988/action-statements.

Garnett, S., J. Szabo & G. Dutson (2011). The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2010. CSIRO Publishing. Available from: http://birdsindanger.net/taxatable.

Geyle H.M., J.C.Z. Woinarski, G.B. Baker, C.R. Dickman, G. Dutson, D.O. Fisher, H. Ford, M. Holdsworth, M.E. Jones, A. Kutt, S. Legge, I. Leiper, R. Loyn, B.P. Murphy, P. Menkhorst, A.E. Reside, E.G. Ritchie, F.E. Roberts, R. Tingley & S.T. Garnett (2018). Quantifying extinction risk and forecasting the number of impending Australian bird and mammal extinctions. Pacific Conservation Biology. https://doi.org/10.1071/PC18006.

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (NSW NPWS) (1999bj). Black-eared Miner Threatened Species Information. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/tsprofileBlackearedMiner.pdf.

NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (NSW NPWS) (2003k). Black-eared Miner (Manorina melanotis) Recovery Plan. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/recoveryPlanFinalBlackearedMiner.pdf.

NSW Scientific Committee (NSW SC) (2009b). Review of the Threatened Species Conservation Act Schedules 2007-2009. Available from: http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/committee/TSCActSchedulesReview.htm.

This database is designed to provide statutory, biological and ecological information on species and ecological communities, migratory species, marine species, and species and species products subject to international trade and commercial use protected under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (the EPBC Act). It has been compiled from a range of sources including listing advice, recovery plans, published literature and individual experts. While reasonable efforts have been made to ensure the accuracy of the information, no guarantee is given, nor responsibility taken, by the Commonwealth for its accuracy, currency or completeness. The Commonwealth does not accept any responsibility for any loss or damage that may be occasioned directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the information contained in this database. The information contained in this database does not necessarily represent the views of the Commonwealth. This database is not intended to be a complete source of information on the matters it deals with. Individuals and organisations should consider all the available information, including that available from other sources, in deciding whether there is a need to make a referral or apply for a permit or exemption under the EPBC Act.

Citation: Department of the Environment (2024). Manorina melanotis in Species Profile and Threats Database, Department of the Environment, Canberra. Available from: https://www.environment.gov.au/sprat. Accessed Sat, 5 Oct 2024 08:32:16 +1000.

Where available the sections below provide a biological profile for the species. Biological profiles vary in age and content across species, some are no longer being updated and are retained as archival content. These profiles are still displayed as they contain valuable information for many species. The Profile Update section below indicates when the biological profile was last updated for some species. For information to assist regulatory considerations, please refer to Conservation Advice, the Recovery Plan, Policy Statements and Guidelines.

Scientific name: Manorina melanotis

Common name: Black-eared Miner

There are morphological and behavioural differences between Black-eared and Yellow-throated Miners (Clarke et al. 2001; Ford 1981; Joseph 1986; McLaughlin 1990, 1992; Starks 1987), and evidence for marked ecological separation exists (McLaughlin 1992; Joseph 1986). This morphological and ecological evidence supports the contention that the two miners are separate species (Fitzherbert et al. 1992). Molecular assessment by Christidis (1995) also indicated that the Black-eared Miner is a distinct species. Moreover, Clarke et al. (2001) showed that Black-eared and Yellow-throated Miners were clearly separable on phenotypic characters prior to extensive modification of mallee habitat that occurred after 1950. They argue that the Black-eared Miner should be afforded full species status given that widespread hybridisation is a recent development facilitated by human disturbance of their habitat. Black-eared Miners can interbreed with Yellow-throated Miners, resulting in fertile hybrids that display a range of intermediate plumages (Ford 1981; McLaughlin 1990, 1993).

The Black-eared Miner has a roughly uniform grey colouring from crown to rump. There is a black mask, starting at the bill and extending under and over the eye, and uniformly over the ear-coverts. There is often also a obscure grey 'moustache-streak'. The absence of a pale rump separates the Black-eared Miner from the Yellow-throated Miner, while the absence of pale tail-tips help separate it from both Yellow-throated and Noisy Miners (Pizzey & Knight 1999).

The Black-eared Miner is often seen in small parties (Pizzey & Knight 1999).

Black-eared Miners are restricted to small, local colonies in the mallee region of north-western Victoria, east to Hattah-Kulkyne National Park, and through the Murray mallee of South Australia north to the Murray River, and to the far south-west corner of NSW (Pizzey & Knight 1999).

Black-eared Miners were considered either common or locally common within their mallee habitat prior to 1940 (Favaloro 1966; Howe & Tregallas 1914; McLaughlin 1990; Starks 1987; Wilson 1912). However, there have been few recent records. In Victoria, there has been a decline in the number of colonies (Considine 1986; McLaughlin 1990, 1994; Starks 1987). This decline has continued despite the retention of a considerable area of apparently suitable habitat within conservation reserves (LCC 1989). At present in Victoria, there are six known widely-dispersed colonies of hybrid birds (Clarke & Clarke 1999a).

Joseph (1986) summarised the decline of the Black-eared Miner in South Australia and considered the species very nearly, if not already, extinct. However, following sightings of hybrid miners in the extensive mallee habitat of the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve north-west of Renmark, and at Glenburr Scrub near Murray Bridge in the early 1990s, surveys were conducted in 1996, which resulted in over 80 sightings of Black-eared Miners (Backhouse et al. 1997; Baker-Gabb 2001a; McLaughlin 1996), and over 200 colonies are now known from this area (Clarke & Clarke 1999b). Although they contain many hybrids, over a third of colonies contain mainly pure-bred Black-eared Miners.

In NSW, the Black-eared Miner was less well known, with only eight likely records up until 1985 (Franklin 1996). However, hybrid birds were observed in 1997 and 1999 in two areas of the Scotia Mallee region adjacent to the border with South Australia (Boulton & Clarke 2000a). The only recent records from NSW are of about five hybrid colonies (Franklin 1996; Boulton & Clarke 2000a).

Small captive colonies of hybrid birds from South Australia have been established at three zoos (Clarke & Clarke 1999b).

Black-eared Miners occur mainly in old-growth habitats that have not been burnt for at least 50 years (Higgins et al. 2001; Starks 1987). In the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve and the Tarawi Nature Reserve in NSW, more than 80% of mallee vegetation is older than 50 years, and hence suitable for the species. In Victoria, there is much less old-growth mallee. Within large areas of contiguous mallee in Bookmark Biosphere Reserve, sites with the highest quality colonies are more than 5 km from dams and man-made clearings (Clarke & Clarke 1999a, Muir et al. 1999). In contrast, all known Yellow-throated Miner colonies in the Bookmark region have been located within 2 km of permanent water and man-made clearings. In Victoria, colonies known to have contained Black-eared Miners were in blocks of contiguous mallee vegetation larger than 12 000 ha (McLaughlin 1994). In South Australia and NSW, all but one known colony occurs in areas of contiguous mallee larger than 100 000 ha. Black-eared Miners were once known to occur in small remnant patches of mallee (McGilp 1943; McGilp & Parsons 1937; Rix 1937), but this was prior to the expansion into and subsequent habitation of these areas by Yellow-throated Miners (Starks 1987). Even larger isolated blocks of suitable mallee such as the reserves at Bronzewing (20 000 ha) and Annuello (35 000 ha) have proved unable to retain viable populations.

Breeding habitat:
Black-eared Miners nest in upright forks of mallee eucalypts or dense epicormic shoots (McLaughlin 1990). Many nests have been observed in Eucalyptus dumosa, E. oleosa and E. socialis, as well as in Dodder Cassytha spp. (usually on eucalypts). Two have been seen in the shrub Myoporum platycarpum and single nests have been found in the tree Santalum murrayanum, the shrubs Moonah, Melaleuca lanceolata and Pinbush, Acacia colletioides (Higgins et al. 2001). There are also records of nesting in Cyprus Pine, Callitris (McLaughlin 1990, 1992). They appear to prefer long unburnt (more than 55 years ago) mallee, possibly because of greater availability of high nesting sites. 50-66% of known colonies are in areas that show coppice regrowth (suggesting high levels of water stress), that are furthest from cleared areas, and in areas considered marginal for grazing of stock (Baker-Gabb 2001a; Muir et al. 1999). They build in denser foliage in tall mallees (often those in dune swale rather than on dune crest), in vertical forks of larger branches and often in epicormic shoots or among small twigs (Higgins et al. 2001; Muir et al. 1998). Within a colony, nests may be as little as 25 m apart (Backhouse et al. 1997; Baker-Gabb 2001a).

The Black-eared Miner is monogamous, and pairs appear to remain together for life, only re-pairing upon the loss of a mate (Clarke & Clarke 1999a). Breeding males within a colony are close relatives, whereas females, the dispersing sex, are not (Baker-Gabb 2001a).

The population sex ratio of adults within breeding colonies in the Bookmark region is significantly male biased (64% male). In contrast, the sex ratio of nestling Black-eared Miners is significantly female biased (61% female). Since the nestling sex ratio is significantly different from the sex ratio of the adult population it would appear that females are experiencing higher mortality than males between fledging and gaining reproductive status (Ewen et al. 2001).

Like other members of the genus Manorina, the Black-eared Miner is colonial. Each colony typically contains several breeding pairs whose nests may be as little as 25 m apart. When breeding, the species is co-operative with up to twelve juvenile and adult non-breeding individuals (helpers) assisting at a nest. Helpers are predominately male, as is the case with other miners (Clarke 1988; Dow 1978).

Black-eared Miners lay clutches of two or three eggs. It is not known how long the incubation period lasts. For a large colony in the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve, reproductive success was high compared to other honeyeater species. 56% of nests containing eggs produced at least one fledgling (Higgins et al. 2001). In 2000, 38 (26%) of 145 recorded breeding attempts produced fledglings, resulting in high rates of recruitment.

Black-eared Miners are opportunistic breeders. Nests have been found in all months of the year, however breeding typically extends from September to December. Breeding appears to be linked to rainfall events during mild to warm seasons which promote elevated insect activity, increased lerp abundance and flowering events, both of mallee and understorey shrubs. Within a breeding period, birds will usually re-build and lay within two weeks of nest failure (Higgins et al. 2001).

When breeding, adult Black-eared Miners typically forage short distances from the nest (up to 0.8 km). When not breeding, birds move as groups (either as an entire colony or in smaller aggregations) over greater distances to forage (Clarke & Clarke 1999a).

Non-breeding Black-eared Miners remain within a non-breeding territory of several hundred hectares, and sightings of marked individuals have been made up to 2 km from the core home range during these non-breeding periods (Clarke & Clarke 1999a). A colony of 11 birds in Victoria occupied a 16 ha core home range and a total home range in excess of 40 ha (Backhouse et al. 1997; Baker-Gabb 2001a). A colony containing more than 40 individuals in Bookmark occupied a core breeding range of 12 ha and a total non-breeding home range of more than 100 ha (Baker-Gabb 2001a).

At their greatest density, colonies breed approximately 2 km apart in the Bookmark region (there is approximately one colony per 400 ha of total available habitat) (Clarke & Clarke 1999a). However, in Victoria, where the species is almost extinct, colonies occurred at densities of about one colony per 1450 ha of apparently suitable habitat in 1993 (McLaughlin 1994).

Distinctiveness
The Black-eared Miner can be confused with Yellow-throated Miner, M. flavigula, and in particular with hybrids between these two species. Clarke and Clarke (1999b) have developed a simple guide to distinguish Black-eared Miners from hybrids and Yellow-throated Miners in the field.

The Black-eared Miner is most safely identifiable by a combination of the following characters (in approximate order of prominence in the field): (1) distinctly darker grey upperparts, chin, throat and breast; (2) dark-grey uppertail-coverts concolorous with the rest of the upper body (always strongly contrasting white or whitish on the Yellow-throated Miner); (3) tip of tail dark grey like the rest of the upperparts (prominent and contrasting white tip on the Yellow-throated Miner); (4) more extensive and solid black mask extending across the lores to the base of the upper mandible and narrowly although clearly and more broadly over the eye-patch (in the Yellow-throated Miner, mask peters out on anterior lores, is only narrowly suggested above and behind eye, and ear-coverts show fine pale scaling in close view); (5) typically lacks the pale post-auricular spot (although some may show hint of one in very close view, always an obvious spot or bigger crescent in the Yellow-throated Miner); (6) typically lacks or at best, shows only indistinct small olive-yellow patch on the side of the neck (always large and prominent patch on sides of neck and upper breast in the Yellow-throated Miner); (7) faint or no fine pale scaling on the hindneck (always obvious in the Yellow-throated Miner in fresh plumage) (Higgins et al. 2001).

The fundamental reason for decline of the Black-eared Miner is that most of its preferred habitat has been cleared. This has allowed the closely related Yellow-throated Miner to colonise habitat remnants and interbreed with Black-eared Miners. Genetic swamping is now the greatest threat. The other major threat is fire (Garnett & Crowley 2000).

Four major causes of decline of the Black-eared Miner are likely to be:

Clearing and habitat fragmentation
Loss of suitable habitat (Favaloro 1966; Joseph 1986; McLaughlin 1990, 1992; Schodde 1981, 1990; Starks 1987) has occurred throughout the range of the Black-eared Miner. In Victoria, mallee habitat on the most fertile soils (preferred by Black-eared Miners) has been selectively cleared for agriculture (Blakers & MacMillan 1988; LCC 1987). This clearance and modification of vegetation has also favoured a range expansion of the Yellow-throated Miner, which threatens the Black-eared Miner through hybridisation.

Habitat degradation
Grazing by domestic stock and feral and native herbivores is sufficiently high on most reserves and pastoral properties that it limits the regeneration of many mallee plants (Forward & Robinson 1996). Dams and their associated clearings and degradation attract Yellow-throated Miners. Black-eared Miners do not need permanent water (Clarke & Clarke 1999a).

Hybridisation
A major cause of decline is introgressive hybridisation by the Yellow-throated Miner (McLaughlin 1990; Schodde 1981; Starks 1987). Black-eared and Yellow-throated Miners were clearly separable on phenotypic characters before extensive clearing occurred after 1950 (Clarke et al. 2001). McLaughlin (1992) demonstrated that habitat occupied by breeding Black-eared Miners is significantly structurally dissimilar from Yellow-throated Miner habitat, and that the two species are predominantly allopatric (overlapping in space). However, colonies of distinctly intermediate-plumaged miners were found to occupy a range of habitat types that in structure overlapped both Black-eared and Yellow-throated Miner habitat. This suggests that although Yellow-throated and Black-eared Miners would not normally come into contact (as would have been the case when Black-eared Miners were occupying remnant habitat), the flow of genetic material between the two species is maintained by the presence of hybrid miner colonies (these colonies would not have been present prior to extensive land clearing). Uncontrolled genetic introgression will eventually result in the loss of the biological and genetic diversity contributed by the Black-eared Miner (e.g. Cade 1983).

Fire
The species prefers mallee vegetation that has not been burnt for at least 50 years (McLaughlin 1990, 1992; Starks 1987). Habitats of this age are now uncommon throughout the distribution of the Black-eared Miner (LCC 1987), except in the Bookmark Biosphere Reserve. Large wildfires remain one of the most serious threats to the Black-eared Miner, and the potential scale of wildfire in mallee habitats suggests that even the largest reserves may be consumed by fire (Benshemesh 1990; Clarke & Clarke 1999a).

Baker-Gabb (2001a) recommended that clearing or fragmentation of intact mallee is highly undesirable and may result in the death of birds or their subsequent genetic swamping by Yellow-throated Miners. Fire access tracks about 5 m wide do not constitute a threat. Dams with their associated clearings and degradation by herbivores attract Yellow-throated Miners, thereby increasing the likelihood of genetic introgression. Putting new dams in blocks of intact mallee is highly undesirable and allowing current dams to persist and provide water for herbivores in conservation reserves is not recommended. Above-ground tanks are recommended for fire fighting purposes.

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